Chapter 1 New World Beginnings: 33,000 BC

People of the Americas The Great Ice Age shaped the geography of North America, but it also contributed to the origins of the continent’s population –evidence suggests a few early settlers of North America used boats –most travelled across the land bridge in what would now be the Bering Sea, following migratory herds –continued for 25,000 years, populating both American continents When the Ice Age ended around 10,000 BC, glaciers melted and the Americas were isolated from further immigration for thousands of years Estimates figure ~54 million people lived in the Americas when Europeans arrived in 1492 Aztecs in Mexico, Mayans in Central America & the Incans in Peru had sophisticated civilizations –Advanced agricultural system (based primarily on maize) –Talented mathematicians and astronomers

Earliest Americans ~5000 BC hunter-gatherers figured out how to grow corn –Provided stable base for the diet, allowing population growth 1200 BC - reached American Southwest –Pueblo Indians created intricate irrigation systems to feed crops –Developed societies north and east were scarce (nothing comparable to the Aztecs as of the arrival of Europeans) –The few that did exist fell into decline by 1300 AD 1000 – corn cultivation reaches the Atlantic seaboard 16 th cent – Iroquois Confederacy is closest North American counterpart to the Aztec & Incan civilizations Unlike Europeans, Native American groups did not have the means or desire to manipulate nature –North American societies much smaller and dispersed than those farther south –Roughly 4 million Native Americans in North America when Europeans arrive in 1492

Indirect Discoverers of the New World ~1000 – Scandinavian hunters reach what would today be Newfoundland –Abundant in wild grapes, they name it Vinland –No permanent, long lasting settlements Due to the overall failure of the Crusades, Europeans desired alternate routes to Asia & the treasures of the East –Spices for flavoring and preserving food –Silks for clothing –Perfumes for unbathed bodies –Colorful tapestries for decoration By the times goods had traveled from China, Indonesia, & India; transportation had made the prices of most goods prohibitive for the majority of Europeans By 15 th cent, Europeans are eager to find alternate routes or sources to supply their needs

Europeans Enter Africa Prior to 1450, European sailors refused to sail southward along the west coast of Africa –The development of the caravel & discovery of prevailing winds that could carry them home helped overcome fears As Portuguese came into contact with African and Arab slave traders, they adopt the slave trade to work sugar plantations on Atlantic islands –40,000 Africans sold into slavery in last half of 15 th cent –Millions more after the discovery of the Americas Bartholomeu Dias rounded the tip of Africa 1498 – Vasco da Gama reached India In the meantime, Spain had unified and was eager to outdo the rival Portuguese –Since Portugal controlled the west coast of Africa, they controlled the water route east –Spain would be forced to look to the west for an alternate route

Columbus Comes Upon a New World After the merger of Castile and Aragon, a unified Spain was quickly taking shape as a powerful, modern nation –The Renaissance nurtured a feeling of adventure and optimism –The printing press helped spread scientific knowledge –And the maritime compass increased certainty when traveling on the open sea Despite his great discovery, Columbus is one of the most successful failures in history –Barely got his first voyage finance and manned –Second voyage was mild failure –Third and fourth voyages were utter failures –Died clinging to the belief that he had reached Asia Columbus’s accidental discovery would change the world and affect all four continents that touch the Atlantic –Europe would provide the markets, capital & technology –Africa would provide the labor –The Americas would provide its raw materials and land

When Worlds Collide New plants native to the Americas, revolutionized the European diet and economy –Roughly 3/5 of the crops grown today originated in the New World –Tobacco, corn, beans, tomatoes & the “lowly” potato –Many of these crops, when introduced to Africa, may have helped create the population growth that numerically helped off-set depopulation by slave trade Europeans also introduced many things to the Americas – Horses first brought to Hispaniola, by 1700, wild horses roamed as far north as Canada –Columbus brought sugar cane seeds to the Caribbean; it thrived in the climate and European desire for sugar fueled the forced migration of millions of Africans –Europeans also brought numerous diseases that the natives had no immunities for (smallpox, malaria, measles, plague, etc.) –Within 50 years of Spanish arrival the native population of Hispaniola had dwindled from 1 million to 200

The Conquest of Mexico 1519 – Hernan Cortes set sail from Cuba w/ several hundred men, 16 horses and 11 ships Finally landed near Vera Cruz, and almost immediately learned of the problems within the Aztec empire Initially, the Aztecs welcomed the Spaniards but quickly changed their mind –Aztecs believed Cortes was Quetzalcoatl returned to his people –Talked the Aztecs out of gold by saying that they had a disease of the stomach that required gold to cure –His men wanted to go home and Cortes burned the ships so the men had to follow his plan 1520 – Aztecs chased the Spaniards from the capital –1521 – Cortez gathered the enemies of the Aztecs and laid siege to the capital –By 1620, the native pop. of Mexico went from 20 million to 2 million, due to disease

Spanish conquest brought more than death and disease –Crops, animals, language, laws, customs, & religion Intermarried with the surviving Indians, creating the mestizo people –mestizos – people of mixed Indian and European heritage The Spread of Spanish America Within 50 yrs of Columbus’s discovery, there were hundreds of Spanish cities throughout the Americas –Great cathedrals, printing presses, & distinguished universities (Mexico City & Lima) existed in Central and South America before the English established Jamestown Other European countries had already been creeping around the edges of Spanish territory – – John Cabot (England) explored the northeast coast of North America –1524 – Giovanni da Verrazano (France) explored the eastern seaboard

1565 – Spain founds St. Augustine, FL to protect from French encroachment 1540s – Spanish began moving north up the Rio Grande 1598 – Conquistadors enter the Rio Grande Valley –1599 – Battle of Acoma – Conquistadors severed a foot from every Pueblo survivor 1609 – territory of New Mexico established Spanish expansion netted little in the way of gold or furs, but many converts to Christianity –Missionaries not accepting of native customs –1680 – Pope’s Rebellion – Pueblo resistance killed 20 priests and hundreds of Spanish settlers –Took nearly 50 years to fully regain control of New Mexico territory 1716 – Spain begins settling in Texas, including the Alamo in San Antonio 1769 – Fr. Junipero Serra founded San Diego with his Franciscan monks

Much of the mistreatment of the Native Americans led to the “Black Legend” of Spanish colonization –Ignores much of the good the Spanish did for the New World –Brought their culture and customs to the Americas & laid the foundation for roughly 20 Spanish-speaking nations Spain had a century head-start on the English in terms of colonization and their colonies lasted 25 yrs longer