Module 10 Operant & Cognitive Approaches

OPERANT CONDITIONING also called Instrumental conditioning Thorndike’s law of effect –states that behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened, while behaviors followed by negative consequences are weakened –People/Animals learn to do and not do things because of the results they get. Ex: You will study for a test to get a good grade.

Edward Thorndike

Puzzle Box Experiment by E.L. Thorndike

OPERANT CONDITIONING Skinner’s operant conditioning –focuses on how consequences (rewards or punishments) affect behaviors –Cornerstone of his theory was the Skinner’s Box

OPERANT CONDITIONING Principles and procedures –Skinner box:  automated to record the animal’s bar presses and deliver food pellets Skinner box is an efficient way to study how an animal’s ongoing behaviors may be modified by changing the consequences of what happens after a bar press 3 factors in operant conditioning of a rat: –a hungry rat will be more willing to eat the food reward –operant response: condition the rat to press the bar –shaping: procedure in which an experimenter successively reinforces behaviors that lead up to or approximate the desired behavior

OPERANT CONDITIONING (CONT.) Principles and procedures of the Skinner’s Box 1.A rat is placed in a box, with nothing except a bar attached to one wall 2.The rat can then be lured to hit the bar when it is rewarded with a food pellet 3.a hungry rat will then quickly learn that hitting the bar means getting a food pellet 4.Equally possible would be the ability to stop the rat pushing on the bar when it is punished with an electrical shock

Skinner Box Shaping (Molding behavior to accomplish a specific task) 1.Facing the bar a.rat is put in box. b.when rat finally faces the bar, food pellet is released c.rat sniffs the food pellet 2.Touching the bar d.rat faces and moves towards the bar e.another pellet is released. f.Rat eats then wanders. Returning to sniff for a pellet, another pellet is dropped into the cup. Rat places a paw on the bar and another pellet is released.

Shaping (To Review) –Pressing the bar 1.When rat touches bar pellet is released. Rat eats and then puts paws back on bar and gets another pellet. Wait for rat to now push bar then release pellet. 2.Rat soon presses bar over and over again to get pellets. 3.Rat’s behavior was reinforced as the rat leads up to, or approximates, the desired behavior of bar pressing Skinner Box

OPERANT CONDITIONING (CONT.) Shaping: the procedure in which an experimenter successfully reinforces behaviors that lead up to the desired behavior

OPERANT CONDITIONING (CONT.) Chaining: the individual learns the final behavior, and then the next to last, and so on, until the beginning of the sequence is reached.

OPERANT CONDITIONING (CONT.) Immediate reinforcement a.reinforcer should follow immediately after the desired behavior b.if reinforcer is delayed, the animal/human may be reinforced for some undesired or non-associated

REINFORCERS Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the chance that a behavior will continue. 1.Positive Reinforcer –Increases the chance that a behavior will occur again when presented. Ex: good grades, treat, pay raise 2.Negative Reinforcer –Increases the chance that a behavior will occur again when this is removed. Ex: aspirin, being “ungrounded” _________________________________________________ Positive and Negative Reinforcers can be both: 1. Primary= unlearned needs ex: food, sex, drinking 2. Secondary: learned needs through experience ex: money, good grades, being “good”

REINFORCERS (Punishment) Punishment: a stimulus that discourages behavior (2) types 1.Positive punishment refers to presenting an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus after a response ex: a spanking after a child is bad 2.Negative punishment refers to removing a reinforcing stimulus after a response ex: a child is bad therefore they cannot watch any tv

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Skinner’s contributions –Schedule of reinforcement refers to a program that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by a reinforcer –Continuous reinforcement Behavior is constantly reinforced; behavior disappears very quickly if the reward is removed –Partial reinforcement Reward is given only some of the time; effective in maintaining behavior in the long run

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT (CONT.) Partial reinforcement schedules –Fixed-ratio schedule a reinforcer occurs only after a fixed number of responses are made by the subject ex: You get a bonus for every 100 items you sell –Fixed-interval schedule a reinforcer occurs following the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time ex: earn a sick day after every 100 days worked

Partial reinforcement schedules –Variable-ratio schedule a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of correct responses has occurred ex: a slot machine rewards the user on a variable ratio –Variable-interval schedule reinforcer occurs following the first correct response after an average amount of time has passed ex: a soldier is granted leave ever so often, but doesn’t know when SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT (CONT.)

OTHER CONDITIONING CONCEPTS As with Classical conditioning; concepts such as Generalization, Discrimination, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery also apply to Operant Conditioning. –an animal or a person emits the same response to similar stimuli Ex: a child stops crying for a candy bar and generalizes to stop crying for lollipops as well Discrimination –occurs during conditioning when an organism learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others Ex: a baby will stop crying in his mother’s arms but not his aunt’s

COGNITIVE LEARNING –Cognitive learning Involves mental processes such as attention and memory; learning can occur through observation and imitation and does not involve any external rewards. –Learning can take place even without a reinforcer. –Animals develop a layout and a process in their brains.

COGNITIVE LEARNING (CONT.) Cognitive Learning established by Albert Bandura –focused on how humans learn through observing things Social cognitive learning –results from watching, and modeling and does not require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive any observable reward EX: A child who witnesses aggression at home may be aggressive to others at school.

COGNITIVE LEARNING (CONT.) Bandura’s social cognitive theory –emphasizes the importance of observation, imitation, and self- reward in the development and learning of social skills, personal interactions, and many other behaviors. No external rewards present Four processes 1.Attention observer must pay attention to what the model says or does 2.Memory observer must store or remember the information so that it can be retrieved and used later 3.Imitation observer must be able to use the remembered information to guide his or her own actions and thus imitate the model’s behavior 4.Motivation observer must have some reason or incentive to imitate the model’s behavior.

INSIGHT LEARNING Insight learning –Insight a mental process marked by the sudden and expected solution to a problem: a phenomenon often called the “ah-ha!” experience. Using perception, intelligence, ability to think to solve a problem. ex: using an instrument to unlock your car door.

* Famous Study: Wolfgang Kohler observed Sultan (chimpanzee) attain fruit by using objects and tools to knock it down.* INSIGHT LEARNING