Hobbes’s Vision of the Human Philosophy 224 Hobbes’s Vision of the Human

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Hobbes lived during a time of great social upheaval. The events of the English Civil War gave him concrete experience of the dangers of social disintegration. Like Confucius, much of his philosophical work is devoted to trying to establish the basis for a stable and just society.

Leviathan Though he published on a number of topics, Hobbes is best known for his book Leviathan (1651). The opening pages of the book are marked by two distinct themes: 1)his distaste for scholasticism (Aristotelianism as updated by Aquinas and others), and 2)his commitment to the methods and accomplishments of the emerging natural sciences (materialism).

Philosophical Materialism Like many other philosophers from this era (the era of modern philosophy), Hobbes was a philosophical materialist. In general, this metaphysical position is committed to the following assumptions: Monism: everything is material, for Hobbes, even God is a material being. Corpuscularism: material reality ultimately resolves into fundamental material particles. The behavior and appearance of wholes is wholly a function of the interaction of these parts. Mechanism: All phenomena explained by mechanical interaction of the ‘corpuscles.’

The Human Machine Consistent with his commitment to materialism, Hobbes took the position that human beings, including their minds, were completely material. Hobbes’s account of the human mind and knowledge was an essentially empiricist one: ideas in the mind are caused by sense experience, which is ultimately resolvable into fundamental material particles. We are, in our bodies and minds, complex wholes completely resolvable into the causal parts of which we are composed.

Our Natural State Hobbes’s operative assumption is that human beings are fundamentally equal in physical and mental abilities. Differences do exist, but in practical terms they don’t amount to much (e.g., the weak can gang up to overpower the strong). This is particularly true with regard to mental abilities. Key claim: everyone is content with their ‘share.’ Implication: “equality of hope in the attaining of our ends” (98).

Naturally Egoistic As we all have equal hope, when we have a desire in common with another, we are naturally in competition with that other, “they become enemies” (98). Hobbes is making a few assumptions here: Human beings are selfish by nature. Human beings aggressively seek to satisfy our desires. The objects of those are desires are limited. If he’s right about these assumptions, we can understand why people view others as a threat or an obstacle in achieving their goals.

A State of War Given this natural enmity, we can understand why, absent some “common power” our natural state is one of war: “every (hu)man against every (hu)man” (99). In such a situation, no industry, culture or development is possible and thus, “the life of man [is] solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short

Surprising Implications In the state of nature, there is no right and wrong, “Where there is no common power, there is no law; where no law, no injustice” (101). Hobbes thus rejects the idea of a transcendent morality, insisting that all moral norms are social in origin. There is also no property. There is only possession.

No Rules, but Passions While there are no rules, human actions are governed by causes, namely emotions (passions). These passions do provide an incentive to avoid conflict, thus showing us a way out of the state of war. These passions are: Fear of death Desire for comforts Recognition that comforts can be obtained.

Natural Rights? The regularities observable in human capabilities and behaviors allow us to articulate basic principles which can serve as the basis for both social forms and determinate moral principles. The starting point is what Hobbes calls The Right of Nature: the right to protect your own life in the best way suggested by reason.

Natural Laws On the basis of this natural right, Hobbes then moves to specify two corresponding natural laws. These laws specify the rationally optimal means of preserving your life. The First Law of Nature (102) is to seek peace whenever possible, and when it is impossible defend yourself by any means necessary. The Second Law of Nature (102) is to be willing to give up your unfettered claim to natural goods to the extent necessary for common agreement.

The Social Contract The force of these rights suggests that the best way to achieve a stable social order, one maximally protective of each individual’s life while preserving as much of their liberty as possible, is to conceive of the social order as a form of contract (104). Each individual willingly renounces their claim on everything in exchange for protection in their person and in their goods.

Theorems of Morality The contract is accomplished in the general acknowledgement of a number of subordinate moral principles (articulated in Chapter XV). These include general principles like: keep your promises reciprocate gifts and kindnesses be accommodating pardon people seek rehabilitation, not revenge be friendly