1. Introduction to Thomas Hobbes We begin with some background on Hobbes' era and his ethics. As you read ask yourself the following questions What are the underlying assumptions of Hobbes' ethics? What effect does this have on his view of how society is formed?

2. Hobbes was the 1st ethics of the "new science" Hobbes' theory has two parts His psychology, which is based on the principles of the "new science" His ethics and political theory, which are based on the psychology he developed.

3. Hobbes' "mechanistic psychology" Mechanistic Materialism: everything is ultimately reducible to material bodies in motion. mental phenomena = physiological motions He makes a distinction between "vital" and "voluntary" motion. Which of these are what he calls "endeavours”?

4. Endeavours continued... There are two kinds of endeavors. Desires and Aversions How does he define GOOD and EVIL? GOOD = those things we desire EVIL = those things we fear Are good and evil absolute or relative?

5. Hobbes' "state of nature“ I “State of nature” is a term developed by 17th /18 th Century political theorists such as Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) & John Locke (1632 – 1704) It describe human motives and conduct in an imaginary “original society,” prior to the formation of government.

6. Hobbes' "state of nature“ II This “thought experiment” Uses the description of human nature apart from known political and social norms as a basis for justifying government in general And a specific form of government in particular.

7. Hobbes' "state of nature“ III “State of nature” theories were designed to replace the concept of “original sin,” an interpretation of human nature based on Genesis 2-3. Human beings had been created by a good and perfect God in God’s image but had lost this perfection through an act of disobedience, Thus falling into a state of “sin” that was inherited by all subsequent human beings. Humans in this state were in need of Divine salvation. When this theory was no longer seen as credible in the 17th and 18 th century, the question became: what was the “original condition” of human beings?

8. Hobbes' "state of nature" Ask yourself: What are the main characteristics of this "state of nature"? How does he argue that all men are equal? What aspect of a human being does he set aside and why? What results from all men being equal? How do men become enemies?

9. Hobbes' Assumptions about "state of nature" 1.People are sufficiently similar in their mental and physical attributes so that no one is invulnerable nor can expect to dominate the others. 2.People generally “shun death”; the desire to preserve their own lives is very strong in most people. 3.While people have local affections, their benevolence is limited, and they have a tendency to favoritism.

10. Hobbes' "state of nature“ Normative Assumptions 1.Each person in the state of nature has a liberty right to preserve herself, which he terms “the right of nature”. This is the right to do whatever one sincerely judges needful for one's preservation. 2.Hobbes also assumes a principle of practical rationality: that people should adopt what they see to be the necessary means to their most important ends.

11. War as "natural state" of man Why does he think war is the "natural state" of man? When does the "state of nature" exist? What prevents war? In the "state of war" man's life will be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short." Why? What elements of life would be missing in the “state of nature”?

12. How war arises in The State of Nature The right of each to all things invites conflict, especially in competition for resources. People fear that others may (citing the right of nature) invade them, and may plan to strike first as an anticipatory defense. That minority of prideful or “vain-glorious” persons who take pleasure in exercising power over others will elicit preemptive defensive responses from others. Conflict will be further fueled by disagreement in religious views, moral judgments, and over what goods one actually needs, and what respect one properly merits.

13. Origins of Society Society originates out of self-interest and fear, not out of affection for other humans. Hobbes states that we have "natural rights.” We have a right to protect our life and "members." We have a right to use all means to preserve ourselves. Everyone has a right to everything. What results from this right? [WAR]

14. Forming a Society Are social relations natural or artificial for Hobbes? Can there be justice in the "state of nature"? Why or why not? How do we decide to form a "social compact"? What is the "general rule of reason"? What is its role in forming a society?

15. Role of Reason in Forming a State The "general rule of reason" has two parts: the 2 laws of nature The first “law of nature” is that we should seek peace and follow it But, if peace is not possible, we should use all means we can to defend ourselves The second "law of nature" We should lay down our right to all things if others agree to. We should be content with "equal liberty"

16. The state is a "commonwealth instituted by covenant" What kind of civil power does Hobbes argue for? Why does he argue for this kind of government? The transfer of power must be voluntary. Certain "rights" are inalienable.” [There are certain things a ruler cannot make us give up.] A 3rd "law of nature" is needed to make the 2nd law work. What is it? Keeping covenants made. How is justice produced by this 3rd law?

17. Summary Hobbes argues for: A scientific basis for morality A prudential, self-interested basis for the state. Morality as entirely conventional. State power as centralized, absolute and undivided. The social contract is not revocable. “Men keep their covenants made.” What would his view of democracy be?