Based on the teachings of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Plato Classical writings were “Christianized” during the early Middle Ages Cosmology Physics 4 Major Elements known as “Classical Elements” Fire Air Water Earth

Nicolaus Copernicus Challenged the view that the universe revolved around the Earth Proved the universe revolved around the Sun Johannes Kepler Challenged the view that the planets rotated in perfect circular orbits Proved through math they orbit at different speeds in elliptical orbits

Isaac Newton Combined inductive reasoning (specific facts lead to general conclusion) and deductive reasoning (general facts lead to specific conclusion) Challenged idea that universe is governed by religion Says that universe is governed by Natural Laws (ex. gravity) Galileo Galilei Challenged Classical Elements Proved mathematical formula for acceleration of falling objects, law of inertia, champion of the experimental method

Rise of Scientific Community and Societies Modern Scientific Method Universe according to natural laws Champions human reason and intellect Competition between Church and Science Deistic view of God (looking for evidence based on reason instead of faith in the supernatural)

Continuation of Scientific Revolution ideals of rationalism, humanism, and progressivism Champions the rising Middle Class Center of Enlightenment was Paris Distrust of tradition and religion Scientific Method applied to society Society can improve on its own (without a supernatural force guiding them to a better life)

Baron d’Holbach Free will- God and the soul are myths Staunchly atheist David Hume Humans cannot be rational, everything is based on impressions Immanuel Kant Enlightenment was a personal process- movement from immaturity to maturity, took courage Rigid moral philosophy

Class tensions between Middle and Upper class- challenging tradition and bringing about a new notion of wealth (American and French Revolutions) Popularization of science Inclusion of women in intellectual subjects- feminine influence that began in the Salons of wealthy families Enlightened Despotism Political reform with powerful monarch pursuing educational, legal, and societal reform Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, etc.