- Observational methods :  For the observations to be considered as scientific research, a carefully planned study is necessary. 1.Determining behaviors to be observed 2.Research Observers -Training sessions will be necessary.

-It is preferable to have more than one observer -Interrater reliability is the degree to which two or more raters or observers assign the same rating or score to an observation. -It is desirable for two observers to agree on at least 85 percent of their independent observations. -The reliability of the observations is therefore always of utmost importance because Human error is quite likely to occur in visual observations.

3. Observation procedures -The researcher must determine how and when observations will be made. -The degree of structure of the observations and the period for gathering data must be considered. -Observations may range from very structured to very unstructured observations.

-A combination of structured and unstructured to very unstructured observations. 4. Relationship between observer and subjects A- A non- participant observer-overt: B-The non- participant observer- covert: -Generally this type of research is not ethical. -Except for instances of public behavior or in observations of unconscious patients or observation of infants and children.

-Subjects will generally respond as they normally would, if the researcher allows for this acclimatization period in the planning of observations. -Devices as hidden cameras and one- way mirrors may be used as long as subjects are fully informed about them. The use of such device eliminate the need for the observer to be present and further reduces the influence of the observer on subjects behaviors.

C- The participant observer- overt D- The participant observer- covert: -”Plant” or a “spy” -Is usually unethical. Advantages and disadvantages of observation: Advantages: 1.There are many nursing problems that are better suited to an observational method. 2.Depth and variety of information.

3. Directly capture a record of behaviors and events. Disadvantages: 1.Ethical difficulties. 2.Reactivity of the observed. “The problem of behavioral distortions owing to the known presence of an observer”. Reactivity is a threat to external validity. (limit the generalizability)

-The most pervasive problems is the observational biases. There are many factors interfere with objective observations, including the following:- 1.Emotions prejudices, attitudes, and values of the observer may result in faulty inference. 2.Personal interest and commitment may color what is seen in the direction of what the observer wants to see.

3. Anticipation of what is to be observed may affect what is observed. 4. Hasty decisions before adequate information is collected may result in erroneous conclusions. -Observational biases cannot be eliminated completely, but they can be minimized through the careful training of observers.

Guidelines for critiquing observational methods: 1.Does the research question lend itself to an observational approach? Would an alternative method have been more appropriate? 2.Is the degree of structure of the observational method consistent with the nature of the research question?

3. To what degree were the observers concealed during data collection? What effect might their presence have had on the behaviors and events they were observing? 4. Where did the observations actually take place? To what extent did the setting influence the naturalness of the behaviors being observed?

5. How were data actually recorded (e.g. field notes, checklists)? Did the recording procedure appear appropriate? 6. What step were taken to minimize observer biases? For example, how detailed were the explanations of the behaviors to be recorded? 7. What was the plan by which events or behaviors were sampled for observation ?Did this plan appear to yield a representative sample of relevant behaviors?

III- physiologic Measures -Physiologic measures involve the collection of physical data from subjects. -One of the greatest advantages of physiologic -One of the greatest disadvantages is that -Special expertise may be necessary to use some of these devices, another disadvantage is that the presence of certain date- collection instruments may adversely influence the subjects.