The Impact of Behaviorism and Cognitivism on Teaching EDTC Instructional Design Jaime Morales

Behaviorism  Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner, is regarded as influential for developing the theory of operant conditioning – the impact of these findings has taught us that behavior is determined by its consequences.  B.F. Skinner’s research identified that the relationship to behavior repeating itself was tied to the reinforcements or punishments.

Behaviorism (continued)  Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior and analyzes external factors involved in learning (Skinner, 1974).  Skinner used Thorndike’s Law of Effect to expand behaviorism to include the outcome or the “what happens” after behavior occurs.  Skinner (1989) states, “Behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences” (p. 18).

Behaviorism (continued)  Skinner wrote that cognitive processes are important, but he still dismissed the creative aspects of cognition, asserting they were learned and therefore a type of weak behavior that could be explained in terms of schedules and reinforcement (Skinner, 1975).

Behaviorism (continued)  In addition to pioneering the study of operant conditioning, Skinner’s study and research developed programmed instruction.  The findings identified that individuals responded to material when it was carried out sequentially through series of smaller steps.

Behaviorism (continued)  The function of the programmed instruction was to begin with stronger support and after prompting, there is a reduction of assistance thus in theory increasing the productivity and performance while decreasing the prompting thus shaping learning and behavior.

Behaviorism (continued)  The connection to teaching and learning is that instruction is not merely about teaching concepts and skills in isolation and then assessing but rather about working through a sequential order and process in which the learner receives feedback before moving on to the next skill or objective.

Cognitivism  Merriam and Caffarella (2007) defined the Cognitive theoretical perspective as a view on the learner as an active participant in the process of knowledge acquisition and integration (p )

Cognitivism: Robert M. Gagne  One of the theorists credited for work in the cognitive arena is Robert M. Gagne whose trajectory included theories of the hierarchy of learning, varieties of learning, phases of learning, systematic planning of instruction and curriculum evaluation.  Gagne’s work led to the forming of the foundation for current research in the areas of learning and instruction. (Yilmaz, 2011)

R. M. Gagne: Cognitivism  Gagne’s perspective of learning is that of a process and therefore advocated the systematic, scientific study of learning.  Gagne believes that educational systems fail their learners when students are promoted year after year without possessing the skills to read, write or perform basic mathematics.

R. M. Gagne: Cognitivism  The issue of teaching higher-order thinking skills and meta-cognitive skills, he believes, depends upon these basic building blocks.  Gagne’s theories have extended beyond the design of instruction in the educational arena but the scope includes the domains of the military, Instructional Systems Development, flying, troubleshooting, leadership, medical care, & engineering.

R. M. Gagne: Cognitivism  To understand cognitive theory, we must know that this approach focuses on making knowledge meaningful and helping learners organize and relate new information to prior knowledge in memory.  “Instruction should be based on a student’s existing mental structures or schema to be effective” (Ertmer and Newby 1993).

Gagne’s: The Nine Events of Instruction  Gagne is credited for his creation of a nine-step process called The Events of Instruction.  The events of instruction are related to the learning process, they lead to several learning outcomes as each event or step supports the internal processes of learning. (Richey, 2014)

Nine Events of Instruction  Gain attention  Tell learners the learning objective  Stimulate recall of prior learning  Present the stimulus, content  Provide guidance, relevance, and organization  Elicit the learning by demonstrating it  Provide feedback on performance  Assess performance, give feedback and reinforcement  Enhance retention and transfer to other contexts

Defining the Nine Events of Instruction  To describe each one means ensuring that the learner is stimulated through questioning  Create a level of expectation and motivation  Make connections to previous learning  Use differentiation of media and strategies  Use higher order thinking to help learning cement itself for long term  Repeated checking for learning  Provide feedback  Reinforce and assess learning  Check that learning transfers to other contexts as a measure of complete learning.

Cognitivism (continued)  “Increasing and maintaining ones sense of self- esteem and pleasure are strong secondary motivators for engaging in learning experiences” (Zemke, 1988).  “New knowledge has to be integrated with previous knowledge; that means active learner participation” (Zemke, 1988).  “Adults will generally learn best in an atmosphere that is non-threatening and supportive of experimentation and in which different learning styles are recognized” (Smith, 1982).

Cognitivism (continued)  Instructional models whose basis is collaboration during teaching and learning “will enhance the self-concepts of those involved and result in more meaningful and effective learning” (Brundage and MacKeracher, 1980).  “Adult learning is facilitated when the learner's representation and interpretation of his own experience are accepted as valid, acknowledged as an essential aspect influencing change, and respected as a potential resource for learning” (Brundage and MacKeracher, 1980).

Cognitivism (continued)  The function of the teacher is to guide the student into the kind of experiences that will enable him to develop his own natural potentialities”.(Knowles, 1998)  The premise is that to achieve lifelong learning status a person never “graduates” rather the individual continues to learn (Knowles, 1980).

Cognitivism (continued)  According to Hiemstra & Sisco (1990), the perception of adult education to focus less on the content and more on the process is credited to the theory of Knowles.  Adult learning needs to be problem-centered rather than content-oriented. Among the various teaching strategies used, simulations, role playing, examination of case studies and self-evaluations have proven to be most effective with the role of the teacher taking a more facilitator stance.

Cognitivism (continued)  Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities. Adults are most interested in learning objectives and skills that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life (Atherton, 2011).  Cognitive theory stems from a belief that people are disturbed not by things, but by the views they take of them (Ellis, 2001).

Cognitivism (continued)  To apply this to adult education in the present, we must consider those theorized characteristics including the self concept of the adult learner, the willingness, motivation and readiness to be self- directed and use life experiences as a resource for learning skills attributed to self-directed learning (McDaniel, 2014).

Cognitivism (continued)  The characteristics we want adult learners to possess vary but overall we want to develop individuals with an ability to engage in divergent thinking, to be able to self evaluate and diagnose one’s learning needs objectively, formulate learning objectives and plan effective strategies through a systematic learning plan (Dickenson, 1997).

Cognitivism (continued)  The function of the teacher is to guide the student into the kind of experiences that will enable him to develop his own natural potentialities”.(Knowles, 1998)

Impact on Adult Learning  Adults will experience different types of learning yet instructors should consider primarily the type of learning that occurs from unstructured settings because a more informal learning occurs from experiences delving from changes in health, marital status, death, etc. but also those stemming from difficult situations including financial stability, personal challenges and sacrifices, loss and these experiences are not always pleasant ones (Merriam and Caffarela, 2007).

Impact on Adult Learning  These experiences will often affect the openness or willingness of the adult learner to participate in other educational settings.  Considering the needs of students as they enter formal learning settings, the role of the adult teacher needs to be clearly defined.

Impact on Adult Learning  Galbraith (2004) described the role and characteristics of an effective teacher as possessing the ability to foresee the need to change and evolving.  Galbraith (p. 4) state that "good teaching should be a balance of understanding one's self as a teacher and knowing how to develop learning encounters that are meaningful and useful in the promotion of personal and professional growth".

Impact on Adult Learning  Clearly established goals and a focus for the class, with sensitivity to the differences within the class, an awareness of cultural differences and conditions set for learning communities may be a more positive and less overpowering way of working with adults.  No matter which theory one assimilates with, the ultimate goal is to provide the best learning environment and experiences for the adult learner.

References Atherton J S (2013) Learning and Teaching; Knowles' andragogy: an angle on adult learning. Retrieved March 5, 2014 from Altus, D. E., & Morris, E. K. (2004). B. F. Skinner's utopian vision: behind and beyond Walden two. Contemporary Justice Review. 7, Barash, D.P. (2005).B.F. Skinner, revisited. Chronicle of Higher Education. 51, B10-B11. Black, S. L. (2005).The Views of B.F. Skinner and human behavior. Chronicle of Higher Education. 51, B21-B21. Brundage, D. H., and Mackeracher, D. (1980). Adult learning principles and their application to program planning. Toronto: Ministry of Education, Ontario.

References Demorest, A. (2005). Psychology's grand theorist: How personal experiences shaped professional ideas. Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Dickenson, D. (1997) Lifelong Learning: A Dream: Malcolm Knowles. Retrieved February 28, 2014, from website: uture/crfut_knowles.cfm uture/crfut_knowles.cfm Ellis, A. (2001). Overcoming destructive beliefs, feelings, and behaviors: New directions for rational emotive behavior therapy. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. Ertmer, P. A., and T. J. Newby Behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism; Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly 6: 50–66.

References Gagne. (n.d.). Retrieved March 19, 2008, from Galbraith, M. W. (Ed.) (2004). Adult learning methods: A guide for effective instruction. (3 rd ed.). Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. Hiemstra, R., & Sisco, B. (1990). Moving From Pedagogy to Andragogy: adapted from Individualizing instruction. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Retrieved March 7, 2014, from Knowles, M. (1989).Informal Adult Education,Self-Direction and Andragogy. Retrieved February 28, 2014 from, website: education-self-direction-and-andragogy/ education-self-direction-and-andragogy/

References Knowles, M. (1998). Training & Development, 52(2), 11. Knowles, M. (1980). MALCOM KNOWLES ON...'LIFELONG LEARNING--BUZZ WORD OR NEW WAY OF THINKING ABOUT EDUCATION'. Training & Development Journal, 34(7), 40. Knowles, M. (1980). MALCOLM KNOWLES ON.. Training & Development Journal, 34(5), 96. Manning, P. R. (2003). Practice-Base Learning and Improvement: A Dream That Can Become a Reality. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions. (23). Retrieved February 18, 2014, from Academic Search Complete. McDaniel, Elizabeth A. Faculty Collaboration for Better Teaching: Adult Learning Principles Applied to Teaching Improvement. Retrieved March 8, 2014 from website: &context=podimproveacad &context=podimproveacad

References Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide 3rd edition. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass Higher Education, Inc. Munro, B. C. (1984). B. F. Skinner. B. C. Journal of Special Education. 8, Richey, R. C., (n.d.). The Future Role of Robert M. Gagné In Instructional Design. Retrieved March 2, 2014 from gn/Gagne.future.pdf gn/Gagne.future.pdf Richey, R. C., (n.d.). Robert M. Gagne's Impact on Instructional Design Theory and Practice of the Future. Retrieved February 28, 2014 from Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Vintage Books Edition.

References Skinner, B. F. (1975). The state of the science. American Psychologist, 30, Skinner B.F. About behaviorism. London: Penguin; Skinner B.F. Genes and behavior. In: Skinner B.F, editor. Recent issues in the analysis of behavior. Columbus, OH: Merrill; pp. 49–56. Smith, R. M. (1982). Learning how to learn: Applied theory for adults. Great Britain: Open University Press. Yilmaz, K. (2011). The Cognitive Perspective on Learning: Its Theoretical Underpinnings and Implications for Classroom Practices. Clearing House, 84(5), doi: / Zemke, Ron and Zemke, Susan. (July, 1988) 30 Things We Know for Sure about Adult Learning. Training, pgs