Wind: small scale and local systems Chapter 9 Wind: small scale and local systems

Small-scale winds interacting with the environment Scales of motion Micro, meso, synoptic Friction and Turbulence in Boundary Layer Laminar flow Irregular turbulent motion Planetary boundary layer (PBL) Depth of PBL

FIGURE 9. 1 Scales of atmospheric motion FIGURE 9.1 Scales of atmospheric motion. The tiny microscale motions constitute a part of the larger mesoscale motions, which, in turn, are part of the much larger synoptic scale. Notice that as the scale becomes larger, motions observed at the smaller scale are no longer visible.

FIGURE 9.2 The scales of atmospheric motion with the phenomenon’s average size and life span. (Because the actual size of certain features may vary, some of the features fall into more than one category.)

FIGURE 9. 3 Winds fl owing past an obstacle FIGURE 9.3 Winds fl owing past an obstacle. (a) In stable air, light winds produce small eddies and little vertical mixing. (b) Greater winds in unstable air create deep, vertically mixing eddies that produce strong, gusty surface winds.

FIGURE 9.5 Satellite image of eddies forming on the leeward (downwind) side of the Cape Verde Islands during April, 2004. As the air moves past the islands, it breaks into a variety of swirls as indicated by the cloud pattern. (The islands are situated in the Atlantic Ocean, off Africa’s western coast.)

FIGURE 9.6 Under stable conditions, air flowing past a mountain range can create eddies many kilometers downwind of the mountain itself.

Small-scale winds interacting with the environment Observations: Eddies & Air Pockets Eddies on leeward side of solid object Roll eddies, mountain wave eddy (clear air turbulence) Increase wind speed/shear deforms layer into wave and air pocket. Force of the Wind Bridges and hills or rises can modify wind, increasing the force at specific locations.

FIGURE 9.9 The shape of this sand dune reveals that the wind was blowing from left to right when it formed. Note also the shape of the sand ripples on the dune.

FIGURE 9.11 Snow drifts accumulating behind snow fences in Wyoming.

Determining wind speed and direction Wind characterized by direction, speed, and gustiness Wind direction describes the direction from which it is blowing Topic: Pedaling in the Wind As wind blows against an object it exerts force (V2 or P x A)

FIGURE 9.14 An onshore wind blows from water to land; whereas an offshore wind blows from land to water.

FIGURE 9.15 Wind direction can be expressed in degrees about a circle or as compass points.

Determining wind speed and direction Influence of Prevailing Winds Prevailing most frequently observed direction during a given time period Impact human and natural landscape Wind rose Topic: Wind Power Turbines need moderate, steady winds Only a few percent of nation’s total energy needs generated by wind power in the first half of the century

Local Winds Thermal circulation Heating and cooling of the atmosphere above the ground create cold, core high and warm, core low pressure cells. Wind travels from high to low and rises until it cools and begins to sink.

Local Winds Sea and Land Breeze Local Winds and Water Uneven heating of land and water Day: land hot, water cold = sea breeze Night: water hot, land cold = land breeze Sea breeze front, sea breeze convergence Local Winds and Water Local winds will change speed and direction as they cross a large body of water due to less friction, greater speed and greater Coriolis effect

FIGURE 9.24 Development of a sea breeze and a land breeze. (a) At the surface, a sea breeze blows from the water onto the land, whereas (b) the land breeze blows from the land out over the water. Notice that the pressure at the surface changes more rapidly with the sea breeze. This situation indicates a stronger pressure gradient force and higher winds with a sea breeze.

FIGURE 9.25 Typically, during the summer over Florida, converging sea breezes in the afternoon produce uplift that enhances thunderstorm development and rainfall. However, when westerly surface winds dominate and a ridge of high pressure forms over the area, thunderstorm activity diminishes, and dry conditions prevail.

FIGURE 9.26 Surface heating and lifting of air along a converging sea breeze combine to form thunderstorms almost daily during the summer in southern Florida.

FIGURE 9.27 The convergence of two lake breezes and their in- fluence on the maximum temperature during July in upper Michigan.

FIGURE 9.29 Sinking air develops where surface winds move offshore, speed up, and diverge. Rising air develops as surface winds move onshore, slow down, and converge.

Local Winds Seasonally Changing Winds: The Monsoon Arabic for seasonal Winds change direction seasonably causing extreme dry and wet season Eastern and southern Asia, North America

FIGURE 9.30 Changing annual wind-flow patterns associated with the winter and summer Asian monsoon.

FIGURE 9.31 Average annual precipitation for Cherrapunji, India. Note the abundant rainfall during the summer monsoon (April through October) with the lack of rainfall during the winter monsoon (November through March).

Local Winds Mountain and Valley Breeze Katabatic winds On mountain slopes, warm air rises during the day creating a valley breeze; during night nocturnal drainage of cool air creating a mountain breeze Associated with cumulus clouds in the afternoon Katabatic winds Cold wind rushes down elevated slopes, usually 10 kts or less but can reach hurricane strength

FIGURE 9.34 Valley breezes blow uphill during the day; mountain breezes blow downhill at night. (The L’s and H’s represent pressure, whereas the purple lines represent surfaces of constant pressure.)

FIGURE 9.36 Strong katabatic winds can form where cold winds rush downhill from an elevated plateau covered with snow.

Local Winds Chinook/Foehn Winds Focus: Snow Eaters Dry warm descending on the leeward side of a orographic barrier Eastern slope of Rockies (chinook), Europe (foehn), Argentina (zonda) Focus: Snow Eaters Thirsty wind on east side of Rockies that eat or melt snow due to rapid change in temperature

FIGURE 9.37 (a) A chinook wind can be enhanced when clouds form on the mountain’s windward side. Heat added and moisture lost on the upwind side produce warmer and drier air on the downwind sides. (b) A graphic representation of the rising and sinking air as it moves over the mountain.

Local Winds Santa Anna Winds Desert winds Warm dry that blows from east or northeast don canyons into S. California Very fast, desiccates vegetation, providing fuel for fires Desert winds Dust storms, sand storms, dust devil, haboob

FIGURE 9.39 Surface weather map showing Santa Ana conditions in January. Maximum temperatures for this particular day are given in oF. Observe that the downslope winds blowing into southern California raised temperatures into the upper 80s, while elsewhere temperature readings were much lower.

FIGURE 9.40 Strong northeasterly Santa Ana winds on October 23, 2007, blew the smoke from massive wild fires (red dots) across southern California out over the Pacific Ocean.

TABLE 9.1 Local Winds of the World