INTELLIGENCE The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

What is intelligence? Intelligence is a socially constructed concept that differs from culture to culture Reify: treat it as though it were a real object, not an abstract concept I.Q. is not something that somebody has, it is how they scored on a test Debate: Is intelligence one overall ability, or many? Can neuroscientists locate and measure intelligence within the brain?

GENERAL INTELLIGENCE Factor Analysis: A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test Used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score People tend to show about the same level of competence in all abilities in a cluster Vocabulary and reading comprehension Spatial ability and reasoning ability Charles Spearman named this common level of intelligence the g factor

GENERAL INTELLIGENCE L.L. Thurston disagreed He identified 7 different clusters of primary mental abilities He did not rank individuals on a single scale of general aptitude Results still showed some evidence of a g factor

Contemporary Intelligence Theories Howard Gardner disputes the idea of one general intelligence (proposes 8 independent intelligences)

Contemporary Intelligence Theories Howard Gardner cont. Savant Syndrome: a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill 4 in 5 are male, and many have autism Robert Sternberg agrees with Gardner, but his Triarchic theory proposes only 3 intelligences Analytical (academic problem solving) Creative (adapt to novel situations and develop novel ideas) Practical (required for everyday tasks)

Table 11.2 Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions Perceive: recognizing them in faces, music, and stories Understand: to predict them and how they change and blend Manage: know how to express them in varied situations Use: enable adaptive or creative thinking Enables success in career, marriage, and parenting situations Critics warn of stretching the idea of intelligence too far

Intelligence and Creativity Creativity: the ability to create novel and valuable ideas 5 Components of Creativity Expertise Imaginative thinking skills (think outside the box) Venturesome personality Intrinsic motivation Support offered by a creative environment Convergent thinking vs. Divergent thinking 2+2: Thinking in only one way(convergent) Name as many things as you can that are hot(div)

Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable? Recent studies indicate some correlation (about +.40) between brain size and intelligence score Brain size and non-verbal intelligence test scores decrease in later adulthood Autopsies of highly educated people revealed above average volumes of synapses and gray matter

Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable? Don’t confuse correlation with causation! Large brain may enable greater intelligence Greater intelligence may lead to experiences that exercise the brain and build more connections A third factor may be at work

Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable? Brain Function Studies of brain functioning show that people who score high on intelligence tests tend also to retrieve information from memory more quickly, and to perceive stimuli faster These differences are reflected in neurological studies that show faster brain response times

History of Intelligence Tests The first intelligence tests were devised by Sir Francis Galton, who sought to show that intelligence is inherited Modern intelligence testing was launched in 1905 by Alfred Binet, who devised a scale to measure a child’s mental age. Lewis Terman revised the Binet scale to produce the Stanford-Binet scale in 1916, which introduced the intelligence quotient (IQ)

History of Intelligence Tests In 1939, David Wechsler published an improved measure of intelligence for adults, which introduced the deviation IQ score based on the normal distribution. Today there are many individual and group intelligence tests.

Key Concepts in Testing Standardization: refers to the uniform procedures used in administering and scoring a test. Percentile Scores indicate the percentage of people who score at or below specific scores.

Key Concepts in Testing Types of Tests Mental Ability Tests: Measure general intelligence, aptitude for specific types of learning, or achievement in specific areas of study Personality Tests: Measure various types of personality traits, as well as motives, interests, values, and attitudes.

Key Concepts in Testing Reliability: Refers to the measurement consistency of a test. (A reliable test gets consistent results) Validity: Refers to the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure Content Validity refers to the degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it is supposed to cover Criterion-related Validity (Predictive Validity) is estimated by correlating subjects’ scores on a test with their scores on an independent measure of the trait (What is the ACT test supposed to predict?)

Unreliable and Invalid LO 8.9 How intelligence tests are constructed Unreliable and Invalid Construct (i.e., “intelligence) TEST Scores on test Menu

Reliable But Invalid Test can be RELIABLE but still be INVALID! LO 8.9 How intelligence tests are constructed Reliable But Invalid Construct (i.e., “intelligence) TEST Scores on test Test can be RELIABLE but still be INVALID! Menu

Reliable AND Valid Test MUST be RELIABLE to be VALID! LO 8.9 How intelligence tests are constructed Construct (i.e., “intelligence) TEST Scores on test Test MUST be RELIABLE to be VALID! Menu

Intelligence Testing Intelligence tests contain a diverse mixture of questions that tap abstract reasoning skills. Modern deviation IQ scores indicate where people fall in the normal distribution of intelligence for their age. For most modern tests, the mean score is 100 and the standard deviation is 15. IQ tests are intended to measure intellectual potential rather than factual knowledge, but they really reflect both.

Figure 11.4 Sample items from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) subtests Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Figure 11.5 The normal curve Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Figure 11. 6 Getting smarter Figure 11.6 Getting smarter? Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Intelligence Testing Individuals IQ scores can vary across testings, but intelligence tests tend to have very high reliability. There is ample evidence that IQ tests are valid measures of academic/verbal intelligence, but they do not tap social or practical intelligence. IQ scores are correlated with occupational attainment, but doubts have been raised about how well they predict performance within a specific occupation. IQ tests are not widely used in most non-Western cultures.

Extremes of Intelligence Mental Retardation Refers to sub-average general mental ability (IQ<70-75) accompanied by deficits in adaptive skills, originating before 18. Retardation may be mild, moderate, severe, or profound. (85% are mild) Many organic conditions can cause retardation, but a specific organic cause can be identified in only about 25% of cases Cases of unknown origin tend to involve mild retardation and are believed to be mainly caused by unfavorable environmental factors.

Table 11.3 Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Extremes of Intelligence Giftedness In practice, efforts to identify gifted children focus almost exclusively on IQ scores, with a score of 130 as the typical minimum. For the most part, gifted children tend to be above average in social and emotional maturity. Although gifted children tend to be successful in life, very few go on to make genius-level contributions. Gifted programs have created controversy

Heredity and Environment Evidence for Hereditary Influence Twin studies show that identical twins are more similar in intelligence than fraternal twins, suggesting that intelligence is at least partly inherited Even more impressive, identical twins reared apart are more similar in intelligence than fraternal twins reared together. Studies also show that adopted children resemble their biological parents in intelligence. Estimates of the heritability of intelligence mostly range from 50% to 70%, but heritability ratios have certain limitations.

Figure 11.9 Intelligence: Nature and nurture Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Figure 11. 10 Who do adopted children resemble Figure 11.10 Who do adopted children resemble? Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Heredity and Environment Evidence for environmental influences Adoption studies find that adopted children show some IQ resemblance to their foster parents and to their adoptive siblings. Studies of environmental deprivation show that children raised in substandard circumstances tend to exhibit a gradual decline in IQ as they grow older. Studies of environmental enrichment show that children who are moved to improved environments tend to exhibit increases in IQ. Generational increases in measured IQ are perplexing, but they must be due to environmental changes

Heredity and Environment The interaction of heredity and environment The evidence clearly shows that intelligence is shaped by both heredity and environment and that these influences interact. The reaction range model refers to how heredity sets limits on one’s intelligence and that environmental factors determine where people fall within these limits.

Heredity and Environment The debate about cultural differences in IQ scores Arthur Jensen and others have argued that cultural differences in IQ scores are largely due to heredity. Even if the heritability of IQ is high, group differences in IQ could be entirely environmental in origin Some theorists argue that race is a social concept based on perceived differences in appearance not on disparities in genetic makeup Socioeconomic disadvantage and cultural bias on tests may contribute to cultural differences in IQ Vulnerability to negative stereotypes can undermine test performance in minority groups.

Figure 11.11 Group differences and environmental impact Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Figure 11.12 Gender and variability Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Figure 11.13 The mental rotation test Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers