“I do not know how to teach philosophy without becoming a disturber of established religion.”

 Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish origin  Considered one of the great rationalists of the 17 th century  Laid the groundwork for 18 th century Enlightenment, and modern biblical criticism  Main interests: Ethics, Epistemology, Metaphysics  Notable ideas: Pantheism, Deism, neutral monism, intellectual and religious freedom

 Summer 1656 – Spinoza issued a Writ of Cherem (excommunication)  Attacked by the Jewish community due to his controversial ideas about Jewish belief, especially the Talmud, and other religious texts  After the Cherem, it is believed that he worked in the school of Franciscus van den Enden – introduced him to Latin and modern philosophy  After this, he became associated with Collegiants who focused on Rationalism, and Arianism.

 The universe, nature, and God are all equivalent  God, and Nature are two names for the same reality.  They are a single substance for which the rest of the universe is modes and modifications.  There is only one set of rules governing all that is around us

 Substance exists and cannot be dependent on anything else for its existence.  No two substances can share the same nature or attribute. Proof: Two distinct substances can be differentiated either by some difference in their natures or by some difference in one of their alterable states of being. If they have different natures, then the original proposition is granted and the proof is complete. If, however, they are distinguished only by their states of being, then, considering the substances in themselves, there is no difference between the substances and they are identical. "That is, there cannot be several such substances but only one." [3] [3]  A substance can only be caused by something similar to itself (something that shares its attribute).  Substance cannot be caused. Proof: Something can only be caused by something which is similar to itself, in other words something that shares its attribute. But according to premise 2, no two substances can share an attribute. Therefore substance cannot be caused.  Substance is infinite. Proof: If substance were not infinite, it would be finite and limited by something. But to be limited by something is to be dependent on it. However, substance cannot be dependent on anything else (premise 1), therefore substance is infinite.  Conclusion: There can only be one substance. Proof: If there were two infinite substances, they would limit each other. But this would act as a restraint, and they would be dependent on each other. But they cannot be dependent on each other (premise 1), therefore there cannot be two substances.

 Everything that happens occurs out of necessity.  Freedom is our capacity to know that we are determined, and that things are supposed to happen the way they do.  Everything must happen the way they do.  There is no free will.

 Nothing is simply good, or bad.  Things are only good or evil because that is the way humanity views them.  "All things in nature proceed from certain necessity and with the utmost perfection".  Nothing happens by chance.  Reality is perfection.  Things are only viewed as negative, or unfortunate because of our inability to understand reality.  According to Spinoza, the highest virtue is the knowledge of God/Nature/Universe.  The more we are conscious of ourselves and God/Nature/Universe, the closer to perfection we are.