1. Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 10: Descartes and the Subject: The way of Ideas

2. Descartes and Subjectivity: Re-building knowledge By the end of the Second Meditation, Descartes has discovered that he exists as a thinking thing or a subject: By the end of the Second Meditation, Descartes has discovered that he exists as a thinking thing or a subject: “But what then am I? A thing that thinks. What is that? A thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses, and that also imagines and senses.” (28) “But what then am I? A thing that thinks. What is that? A thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses, and that also imagines and senses.” (28)

3. “Seemings:” The Way of Ideas “…For although perhaps, as I supposed before, absolutely nothing that I imagined is true, still the very power of imagining really does exist, and constitutes a part of my thought. Finally, it is this same ‘I’ who senses or is cognizant of bodily things as if through the senses. For example, I now see a light, I hear a noise, I feel heat. These things are false, since I am asleep. Yet I certainly do seem to see, hear, and feel warmth. This cannot be false. Properly speaking, this is what in me is called ‘sensing.’ But this, precisely so taken, is nothing other than thinking.” (p. 29) “…For although perhaps, as I supposed before, absolutely nothing that I imagined is true, still the very power of imagining really does exist, and constitutes a part of my thought. Finally, it is this same ‘I’ who senses or is cognizant of bodily things as if through the senses. For example, I now see a light, I hear a noise, I feel heat. These things are false, since I am asleep. Yet I certainly do seem to see, hear, and feel warmth. This cannot be false. Properly speaking, this is what in me is called ‘sensing.’ But this, precisely so taken, is nothing other than thinking.” (p. 29)

4. Descartes and Subjectivity: The Way Of Ideas At this stage, Descartes does not know whether anything outside him exists, but he knows that he himself and his own processes of thinking do exist At this stage, Descartes does not know whether anything outside him exists, but he knows that he himself and his own processes of thinking do exist These processes of thinking – the way things seem – can be called “ideas.” For instance, Descartes does not know that the sun really exists, but he does know at least that his idea or impression of the sun does. These processes of thinking – the way things seem – can be called “ideas.” For instance, Descartes does not know that the sun really exists, but he does know at least that his idea or impression of the sun does.

5. The way of Ideas “…I had previously admitted many things as wholly certain and evident that nevertheless I later discovered to be doubtful. What sort of things were these? Why, the earth, the sky, the stars, and all the other things I perceived by means of the senses. But what was it about these things that I clearly perceived? Surely the fact that the ideas or thoughts of these things were hovering before my mind. But even now I do not deny that these ideas are in me.” (p. 35). “…I had previously admitted many things as wholly certain and evident that nevertheless I later discovered to be doubtful. What sort of things were these? Why, the earth, the sky, the stars, and all the other things I perceived by means of the senses. But what was it about these things that I clearly perceived? Surely the fact that the ideas or thoughts of these things were hovering before my mind. But even now I do not deny that these ideas are in me.” (p. 35).

6. The way of Ideas: the Proof of the Existence of God Having discovered that he exists as a thinking thing and has various ideas, Descartes will use one of these ideas – the idea of God – as a lever to prove the existence of one thing outside him: a God who is infinite and perfect. Having discovered that he exists as a thinking thing and has various ideas, Descartes will use one of these ideas – the idea of God – as a lever to prove the existence of one thing outside him: a God who is infinite and perfect. He will argue that since God exists and is infinitely good, He would not allow Descartes to be deceived about everything that exists He will argue that since God exists and is infinitely good, He would not allow Descartes to be deceived about everything that exists In this way Descartes will get back the existence of the external world that he has systematically doubted. In this way Descartes will get back the existence of the external world that he has systematically doubted.

7. Descartes and the Idea of God The idea of God is “the idea that enables me to understand a supreme deity, eternal, infinite, omniscient, omnipotent, and creator of all things other than himself…” (p. 40) The idea of God is “the idea that enables me to understand a supreme deity, eternal, infinite, omniscient, omnipotent, and creator of all things other than himself…” (p. 40) This idea is itself more perfect than any other idea. In fact, it is more perfect than any finite thing. This idea is itself more perfect than any other idea. In fact, it is more perfect than any finite thing. But “…something cannot come into being out of nothing, and also … what is more perfect cannot come into being from what is less perfect.” (40-41) But “…something cannot come into being out of nothing, and also … what is more perfect cannot come into being from what is less perfect.” (40-41)

8. Descartes and the Idea of God The idea of God is more perfect than anything that could have come from Descartes himself. The idea of God is more perfect than anything that could have come from Descartes himself. According to Descartes, it follows that it comes from a being, or substance, who is perfect and infinite rather than finite and imperfect, like Descartes. According to Descartes, it follows that it comes from a being, or substance, who is perfect and infinite rather than finite and imperfect, like Descartes. This being is itself God. This being is itself God.

9. The existence of God “There remains only the idea of God. I must consider whether there is anything in this idea that could not have originated from me. I understand by the name ‘God’ a certain substance that is infinite, independent, supremely intelligent and supremely powerful, and that created me along with everything else that exists – if anything else exists. Indeed all these are such that, the more carefully I focus my attention on them, the less possible it seems they could have arisen from myself alone. Thus, from what has been said, I must conclude that God necessarily exists.” (45). “There remains only the idea of God. I must consider whether there is anything in this idea that could not have originated from me. I understand by the name ‘God’ a certain substance that is infinite, independent, supremely intelligent and supremely powerful, and that created me along with everything else that exists – if anything else exists. Indeed all these are such that, the more carefully I focus my attention on them, the less possible it seems they could have arisen from myself alone. Thus, from what has been said, I must conclude that God necessarily exists.” (45).

10. The existence of God: Second Argument Descartes also notices that he stays in existence over time. What is it that preserves our existence over time? Descartes also notices that he stays in existence over time. What is it that preserves our existence over time? “For because the entire span of one’s life can be divided into countless parts, each one wholly independent of the rest, it does not follow from the fact that I existed a short time ago that I must exist now, unless some cause, as it were, creates me all over again at this moment, that is to say, which preserves me.” (48-49) “For because the entire span of one’s life can be divided into countless parts, each one wholly independent of the rest, it does not follow from the fact that I existed a short time ago that I must exist now, unless some cause, as it were, creates me all over again at this moment, that is to say, which preserves me.” (48-49)

11. Summing up: Descartes, Plato, and the Subject Descartes’ first argument for the existence of God has certain similarities to Plato’s argument for the immortality of the soul (what are they?) Descartes’ first argument for the existence of God has certain similarities to Plato’s argument for the immortality of the soul (what are they?) Descartes’ second argument for the existence of God has certain similarities to Sam Miller’s argument for the basis of personal identity over time (what are they?) Descartes’ second argument for the existence of God has certain similarities to Sam Miller’s argument for the basis of personal identity over time (what are they?)

12. Descartes and the existence of God: Summary In order to regain the existence of the external world, Descartes seeks to prove the existence of God. If God exists, he cannot be a deceiver, so Descartes cannot be deceived about all the things he perceives and understands. In order to regain the existence of the external world, Descartes seeks to prove the existence of God. If God exists, he cannot be a deceiver, so Descartes cannot be deceived about all the things he perceives and understands. He discovers that he has many ideas; among these are the idea of God as a perfect, infinite being. He will use this idea of God as a lever to prove the existence of God. He discovers that he has many ideas; among these are the idea of God as a perfect, infinite being. He will use this idea of God as a lever to prove the existence of God. By reflecting on this idea itself, he is able to argue that God exists as an infinite, perfect, and omnipotent being who also has the power to hold Descartes in existence over time. By reflecting on this idea itself, he is able to argue that God exists as an infinite, perfect, and omnipotent being who also has the power to hold Descartes in existence over time.

13. Descartes and the existence of God: Comparison Like Plato, Descartes uses reason to establish that there are certain ideas and therefore that there are things that exist, beyond what we simply sense with our five senses. Like Plato, Descartes uses reason to establish that there are certain ideas and therefore that there are things that exist, beyond what we simply sense with our five senses. Like Augustine, Descartes discovers that he can use self-consciousness to discover his own existence and selfhood. Like Augustine, Descartes discovers that he can use self-consciousness to discover his own existence and selfhood. Like Sam Miller, Descartes argues for a principle that explains the unity and identity of a person over time. Like Sam Miller, Descartes argues for a principle that explains the unity and identity of a person over time.

14. Descartes and the existence of God: Comparison All of these thinkers are using reason to reflect on what we can know. They are giving proofs for things that we cannot necessarily see, hear, or otherwise sense. These proofs work by giving reasons in order to “tie down” our opinions about what we ourselves are, to make these opinions into true and justified self- knowledge. All of these thinkers are using reason to reflect on what we can know. They are giving proofs for things that we cannot necessarily see, hear, or otherwise sense. These proofs work by giving reasons in order to “tie down” our opinions about what we ourselves are, to make these opinions into true and justified self- knowledge.