Introduction to Iran / Evolution of the Iranian State

Country Bio: Iran Population: Territory: Year of Independence: 66.3 million Territory: 636,296 sq. miles Year of Independence: 550 B.C. Year of Current Constitution: 1979, amended in 1989 Head of State: Ali Khamenei Head of Government: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad Language: Persian, regional languages Religion: Twelver Shiite Muslim 90%, Sunni Muslim 10%, non-Muslims less than 1%

Historical Turning Points 559 BCE --- Empire of Cyrus the Great 332 BCE --- Conquest by Alexander the Great and the Greeks 250 BCE --- Parthian Dynasty 226 CE --- Sassanian Dynasty 638 --- Arab/Islamic Conquest 1219 --- Mongol Invasion 1501 --- Safavid Dynasty establishes Shiism as state religion 1796 --- Qajar Dynasty

Political Turning Points I 1905 --- Constitutional Revolution 1908 --- Oil discovered 1925 --- Reza Khan overthrows Qajar Dynasty 1941 --- Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi becomes shah 1950’s --- Mossadeq nationalizes oil industry; US coup restores shah 1960s-70s – White Revolution/Khomeini in exile 1979 --- Islamic Revolution

Political Turning Points II 1980-1988 --- War with Iraq 1989 --- Khomeini dies; Khamenei succeeds him as Supreme Leader after a power struggle in the Assembly of Religious experts 1997 --- Reformist Khatami elected president 2000 --- Reformist candidates win control of the Majlis 2004 --- Conservatives regain control of Majlis 2005 --- Conservative Ahmadinejad elected president

Achemenian Empire (Persia) Founded by Cyrus (6th century BCE) Largest empire in the world at that time Survived for 200 years Centralized military leadership Major rival was the Greeks Both Greeks & Persians ultimately conquered by Alexander the Great Alexander left Persian political structure relatively intact

King Darius - Zoroastrianism Iranian sovereigns were hereditary military leaders King’s authority supported by strong military as well as state-sponsored religion: Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism did not survive as major religion but continued to be practiced regularly until 7th century CE.

Shi’ism Between 7th & 16th centuries religion held Iran together Numerous invasions by Arabs introduced Islam to the region Even when Iranian caliphate was defeated by Mongols in 13th century the Mongolians converted to Islam Shi’ism established as state religion in 16th century

Shi’ism II Shi’ites – after Muhammad’s death they felt that leadership of the Muslims should be hereditary and pass to Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali. Sunnis favored choosing a caliph from the accepted Sunni leadership. When Ali was killed the Shi’ite opinion became a minority one, but they kept their separate identity. Shi’ites believe the true heirs of Islam are the descendants of Ali. The heirs (Imams) continued until the 9th century, when the 12th descendant disappeared as a child, to become known as the “Hidden Imam”

Twelver Shi’ism “Hidden Imams” 12th Imam disappeared as a child in 874 CE, did not die however, will come forward and show himself to establish just rule at the end of times, when injustice and corruption reign supreme (Messiah-like figure) Ulema (Muslim scholars) were willing to give the right to rule to the shahs as long as they ruled justly By end of the 17th century for a shah’s rule to be legitimate he had to have the ulema’s endorsement Ulema ultimately established themselves as an institution independent of the state, tithes were often paid to the ulema directly giving them both political and economic influence The center of Twelver Shi’ism is the city of Najaf, in Iraq

Safavid Empire (1501-1722) Established Shi’ite identity in Iran By mid-17th century converted 90% of population to Shi’ism Tolerated “People of the Book” – monotheistic religions based on holy books similar to the Qur’an Relied on local rulers to maintain order and collect taxes Claimed absolute power but lacked a central state Monarchy became separated from society and lost power by 1722

Qajars (1794-1925) Turkish people that reconquered Iran at end of 18th century Moved capital to Tehran Could not claim to be descendents of Twelve Imams Shi’ite clerical leaders could claim more power as interpreters of Islam, separation between government and religion widened Suffered land loss to European empires of 19th century, sold oil rights to British in the southwest Shah led country into serious debt Iranians were upset over shah’s lavish lifestyle and looked for change

Constitutional Revolution Constitution of 1906 Elections Separation of Powers Laws made by an elected legislature Popular sovereignty Bill of Rights guaranteeing citizen equality, protection of the accused, and freedom of expression Majlis & Guardian Council created Shi’ism became official state religion

Pahlavis (1925-1979) By early 1920’s Iran in political and economic disarray Majlis divided by quarreling factions Iran divided into three parts after WWI with Russia and Great Britain each occupying a third of the country Cossack Brigade of the Qajar’s led by Colonel Reza Khan carries out coup d’etat in 1921 and claims himself shah in 1925 establishing the Pahlavi dynasty

Pahlavi’s continued Authoritarian rule reestablished in Iran Majlis loses its power Reza Shah passes power to his son, Muhammad Reza Shah in 1941 Democratic experiment of 1906 constitution not forgotten, shah challenged domestically Tudeh Party (communists) National Front (nationalists) - Muhammad Mossadeq Mossadeq overthrown by CIA in 1953, Shah reinstated

Pahlavi - OIL & the Rent-seeking state Iran transformed into rent-seeking state under Pahlavi’s rule because of increasing income from oil Rentier Economy: heavily supported by state expenditure, while the state receives “rents” from other countries* Iran received increasing revenue from exporting oil and leasing oil fields to foreign countries By 1979, oil & associated industries provided 97% of foreign exchange and majority of Iran’s GNP Oil revenue became so great that the government did not have to rely on internal taxes to generate income, paid expenses from oil profits **The people become unnecessary to the government in this rentier state

Pahlavi Influence Centralized State State banks National radio/TV networks National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) Central Bureaucracy controlled local governments Majlis became “rubber-stamp” legislature Secularization in judicial branch (European-style judicial system) “White Revolution” Armed forces 5th largest in world by 1979 Patronage – shahs boost personal wealth by seizing property and establishing tax-exempt Pahlavi Foundation that controlled large companies and fed their wealth Muhammad Reza Shah formed Resurgence Party, claimed Iran was one-party state, named himself head

Pahlavi – “White Revolution” “White” to counter influence of “red” communists Land reform – government bought land from large absentee owners and clerics and sold it to farmers at affordable prices Women’s rights (secularization) Suffrage Restricted Polygamy Women allowed to work outside the home

Islamic Revolution & the Republic (1979-present) Dominant ideology of Iranian revolution: Religion Leader a cleric (Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini) Theocracy established Fundamental Islam Causes Shah perceived as being totalitarian Balance between secular and religious state ruptured Ties with US and the Western world strained/resented

Khomeini, Fundamentalism, & Revolution Islamic Fundamentalism Literal interpretation of Islamic texts Social conservatism Political traditionalism Resentment toward elites, US, and the Western world US was the “Great Satan” Velayat-e faqih (jurist’s guardianship) Senior clergy given authority over entire Shi’ia community

Revolution Oil prices decrease about 10% in late 70s Consumer prices in Iran increase about 20% at the same time “Revolution of Rising Expectations” – revolutions occur when people are doing better than they once were and a set back occurs US puts pressure on shah to loosen restrictions on civil society, in particular restraints on political opposition Once restrictions were eased many groups join the revolt (students, teachers, labor groups, oil workers, merchants, and professional associations)

Revolution II 1978 Rallies organized and led by clerics Unarmed demonstrators killed in central square in Tehran Oil workers go on strike Anti-regime rallies attract 2 million participants Rallies organized and led by clerics Shah flees the country in February 1979 Khomeini returns to Iran from exile in Paris

Islamic Republic April 1979 referendum held, Iranians officially vote out the shah, Islamic Republic established Assembly of Religious Experts – 73 clerics elected by the people draft a new constitution in 1979 US-Iranian hostage crisis on-going during vote to ratify constitution 99% of electorate votes to endorse constitution, although only 75% of eligible voters cast votes

Khomeini & the Islamic Republic Clerics consolidate power Popular support for regime high World oil prices rise again, allowing for social programs, improvements in medicine & housing Iraq invades Iran, people rally around the government Charisma of Khomeini inspired faith in the government Khomeini dies in 1989, constitution amended Ali Khamenei succeeds Khomeini, does not have the same political charisma as the Ayatollah Iran-Iraq war ends in 1988, country war-torn Oil prices drop in 1990’s Population begins to question authoritarian rule of the clerics

Constitution of 1979 Mixture of theocracy and democracy Preamble reflects importance of religion Velayat-e faqih (Jurist’s guardianship) Gave broad authority to Khomeini and the clerics