Work and Families Mothers enter labor force Implications for family life Marital power and work Role overload, conflict, and spillover Work-family life cycle patterns Shift work and child care Working families and low wages

Mothers’ Labor Force Participation,

Expansion of service sector Working hours beyond 9-5 Increased demand for workers Fewer children Families need two incomes Why women entered labor force

changed balance of power in marriage shift to individual marriage women’s earnings still only 77% of men’s single mothers still disadvantaged A Profound Change in Family Life

Bases of Power in Marriage Legitimate – Authority, traditional roles –most affected by women’s employment Referent – Identify with spouse, want to please Expert –Knowledge of specific issue Others (less common) - coercion, reward, informational

Wives who earn more have more power Still have childcare and household responsibilities Family work is relationship-specific Limits ability to compete in job market “Legitimate” Power and Wage Work

Less traditional division of labor Total housework has declined Hire help if affordable Men do more housework than previous generation Still do much less than women “Legitimate” Power and Housework

Face to face, meeting another’ s needs “Women’s work:” women are –97% of childcare workers –79% of healthcare workers –Often undervalued, underpaid, unpaid Less status in marriage Some control over specific decisions High proportion are minority women Care Work

Role Overload, Conflict, and Spillover Role overload: too many roles at once Role conflict: different roles conflict Greater in some life stages Greater for women Not always stressful Increased stress w/ long hours, low benefits

Spillover Spillover: Stressful events in one part of life spill over into others Wives may protect husbands from stress Men more likely to withdraw from families Women feel more spillover of family into work

How couples cope: 3 life cycle paths Work Stage (his) Novitiate Early Career Mid-Career Late Career Retirement Family Stage (hers) Beginning marriage Childbearing Teenage children Launching children Aging family 1. Simultaneous-Traditional Work-Family Life Cycle

2. Sequential Work-Family Life Cycle More typical of women Work fulltime, cut back during childbearing, then more work, etc. May make prioritizing easier Works better in some jobs Not all families can afford May involve career sacrifices

True sharing Idealized, but not common 3. Symmetrical Work-Family Life Cycle

Shift Work and Child Care Child care may be handled by parents: –Flexible hours—different shifts –May turn down job opportunities –May be stressful on marriage Single parents can’t use this

Child care arrangements of employed mothers of children under 5, 1999 Parents21.5 Mother while working3.1 Father18.5 Relatives28.8 Grandparent20.8 Sibling and other relative8.0 Organized facility22.1 Day care center17.9 Nursery/preschool3.8 Federal Head Start program0.4 Other nonrelative care20.3 In child's home3.3 In provider's home16.9 Family day care10.9 Other nonrelative6.0 Other7.3

Annual Expenditures on Child Care, by Parents’ Income and Child’s Age, 2002 Parents’ IncomeUnder 22 to 5 under 40,700$950$ ,700-68,400$1570$1740 over 68,400$2370$2580 Child’s Age

Flextime: Allows flexible hours Family leave: Time off to care for child or other dependent Part-time work with benefits Job Sharing Toward a Responsive Workplace

Summary Mothers entered labor force since 1970 Changed balance of power in marriage Sometimes results in overload, spillover Changed experience of family life cycle Involves child care decisions Workplace has not responded greatly to needs of families