1 Thinking Module 23

2 Thinking Overview Thinking  Concepts  Solving Problems  Making Decisions and Forming Judgments

3 Thinking  Cognition  mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating  Cognitive Psychologists  study these mental activities  concept formation  problem solving  decision making  judgment formation

4 Thinking  Concept  mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

5 In Class Exercise on Prototypes Number your paper 1-10

6 Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image) Daniel J. Cox/ Getty Images J. Messerschmidt/ The Picture Cube Prototype Mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

7 Category Hierarchies We organize concepts into category hierarchies. Courtesy of Christine Brune

8 Categories Once we place an item in a category, our memory shifts toward the category prototype. A computer generated face that was 70 percent Caucasian led people to classify it as Caucasian. Courtesy of Oliver Corneille

9 Problem Solving Problem solving strategies include: 1.Trial and Error 2.Algorithms 3.Heuristics 4.Insight

10 Thinking  Algorithm  methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem  contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone- -use of heuristics

11 Algorithms Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms. S P L O Y O C H Y G If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200 possibilities.

12 Heuristics Heuristics are mental shortcuts that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms. Heuristics with the psych files Heuristics with the psych files 15:12 B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images

13 Heuristics Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems. S P L O Y O C H Y G S P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y Put a Y at the end, and see if the word begins to make sense.

14 Insight Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight. Chimp Problem solving: &NR=1&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mod e=1 4&feature=related&safety_mode=true&persist_s afety_mode=1 Grande using boxes to obtain food

15 Try to connect these dots with three lines, without lifting your pencil from the paper or retracing any of the lines you draw. You must also end the drawing where you began it. You can take up to three minutes.

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18 Insight (it can be seen in the brain before you are conscious of it) Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience), it activates the right temporal cortex (Jung- Beeman & others, 2004). The time between not knowing the solution and responding is about 0.3 seconds. From Mark Jung-Beekman, Northwestern University and John Kounios, Drexel University

19 Thought Puzzle #1 Predict the next number in this sequence. In your notes, write down your thought process. Include any “dead ends.” Don’t talk about your process or your answer so that everyone can work on the puzzle. Sequence ____

20 Thought Puzzle #1 Sequence ____ Now think about the words rather than the numbers Eight Five Nine One Seven Two _____

21 Thought Puzzle #1 What got in the way of solving this problem? Mental Set - Old pattern of problem solving is applied to a new problem. Functional Fixedness – A tendency to think about familiar objects in familiar ways which may prevent more creative use of those objects to solve the problem.

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23 Thought Puzzle #2 – Connect the dots with no more than 4 straight lines without lifting your pen. *** *** ***

24 Thought Puzzle #2 – Connect the dots with no more than 4 straight lines without lifting your pen. *** *** ***

25 Thought Puzzle #2 – Connect the dots with no more than 4 straight lines without lifting your pen. Many people suffer from the Mental Set which states that they must stay within the square defined by the dots. Functional Fixedness keeps most people in a “connect the dots” mode.

26 What path will the marble follow when it leaves the curved tube? Figure 8.7: Applying a Mental Model

27 Are these pairs of objects the same or different? Manipulating Images Return

28 Obstacles in Solving Problems Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias. 2 – 4 – 6 Discover the rule

29 Fixation Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving and creativity. An example of fixation is functional fixedness. The Matchstick Problem: How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles? From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

30 Functional Fixedness A tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object. ? Problem: Tie the two ropes together. Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.

31 Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board? Candle-Mounting Problem From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

32 The Three-Jugs Problem  Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?

33 Fig. 8-6, p. 311

34 Fig. 8-7, p. 312

35 The Matchstick Problem: Solution From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

36 Candle-Mounting Problem: Solution

37 The Three-Jugs Problem  Solution: a) All seven problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B - A - 2C = desired volume.  b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A - C for problem 6.

38 Making Decision & Forming Judgments Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning. LinkLink How to make better decisions

39 Heuristics There are two kinds of heuristics, representative heuristics and availability heuristics. Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University of Louisville and the Tversky family Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University of Louisville and Daniel Kahneman

40 Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than such professors. Representativeness Heuristic Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype. If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be? More likely an ivy league classics professor or a truck driver?

41 Heuristics  Availability Heuristic  estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory  if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common  Example: airplane crash

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43 Overconfidence Overconfidence: tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. In the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock. Mind over Money at NOVA Mind over Money at NOVA 52:52

44 …overconfidence increases with action. As we actively engage, we become more confident in what we are doing.

45 You might steal more when asked NOT to… Sign posted that condemned the fact that many visitors steal the wood from Petrified Forest National Park. In the absence of the sign 3% stole wood In the presence of the sign 8% stole wood Messages that condemn yet highlight undesired social norms are common, and that they invite counterproductive results

46 Exaggerated Fear Exaggerated fear: about what may happen. Such fears may be unfounded. This is opposite of having overconfidence. The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear. AP/ Wide World Photos

47 Thinking  Framing  the way an issue is posed  how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments  Example: What is the best way to market ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean?

48 Thinking and Belief  Belief Bias  the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning  sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid  Belief Perseverance  clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited Magic and the Brain at PBS

49 Belief Bias example God is love. Love is blind Ray Charles is blind. Ray Charles is God. Anonymous graffiti

50 Fluency Effect If the form of information is difficult to assimilate, that affects our judgments about the substance of that information.

51 Perils & Powers of Intuition Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but may also be extremely efficient and adaptive…it allows quick decisions. Irrational behavior link Myers on Intuition

52 Predictably Irrational The power of FREE! Truffle at 15 cents Kiss at 1 cent, 73% chose truffle 27% chose kiss Truffle at 14 cents Kiss at free 31% chose truffle 69% chose kiss The price difference in both cases is the same… 14 cents So…free can make you miss something…

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55 EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (7th Edition in Modules) David Myers PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad Henderson State University Worth Publishers, © 2008

56 Impact of Belief Bias in a Syllogism Premise #1 –Some professors wear ties. Premise #2 –Some men wear ties. Conclusion –Some professors are men. –Does this follow logically? Premise #1 –Some scarecrows wear ties. Premise #2 –Some professors wear ties. Conclusion –Therefore, some scarecrows are professors??? Return

57 Figure 8.9: Two Versions of the Same Premise

58 Thinking Strategies: Informal Reasoning Also known as inductive reasoning –Role of heuristics Potentially problematic heuristics –Anchoring heuristic Basing judgments on existing info – early info has more impact –Representativeness heuristic Judging whether something belongs to a class based on its similarity to other members of the class –Availability heuristic Basing judgments on information most easily brought to mind

59 Biases and Flaws in Decision Making Loss Aversion Biases in Perceptions of Probability –Overestimate probability of unlikely events –Underestimate probability of likely events –Gambler’s fallacy Unrealistic Confidence in Accuracy of Predictions

60 Cognition, Language, and Intelligence Simple concepts have a single common feature Complex concepts –Conjunctive: simultaneous presence of 2 or more common characteristics –Disjunctive: presence of one common characteristic or another, or both apple Red t-shirt ball aunt female mom’s sister Schizophrenic person hears having voices distorted not there beliefs Types of Concepts

61 Cognition, Language, and Intelligence Basic Concepts Station wagon Basic concepts Vehicles Planes Propeller plane Cars Luxury sedan Sports car Boats Glider Jet plane Kayak Sailboat Motorboat Subordinate concepts Superordinate concept

62 Creative Problem Solving Creativity – ability to act or think in novel and ways that are valued by others Convergent thinking –Logical, factual, conventional, focused thinking Divergent thinking –Unconventional, loosely organized and directed –Breaks out of mental sets more easily Cognition, Language, and Intelligence

63 Cognition, Language, and Intelligence Which two belong together? Chinese thinking (relationship) American thinking (category)

64 All (except one) of these animals fit the concept of “penguin”