Supraglacial & Englacial Environments, Processes chapter 6
Supra- and Englacial Processes [Andrews, 1975]
Supra- and Englacial Processes Topics –Ice flow –Ice structure –Sources of glacial debris –Glacial debris transport –Character of glacial debris –The glacier terminus
Glacier (summary) Cirque glacier- Heap Steep, WY Snowfield/glacier (bergshrund) Firn/ice Debris around, on, in, below, beyond Flow/structures
Tributary Flow Blue Glacier (WA) Multiple cirques Icefall
Tributary Flow
Crevasse types Chevron Longitudinal Transverse Splaying Bergschrund Randkluft
Mechanics of crevassing Results from rapidly-applied stress Form many distinctive patterns Observed patterns relate the strain directly to the mechanics of stress couples
Basic Crevasse Formation (Sharp, 1960)
Crevasse examples Depth <40 m ? Tensional and marginal Terminal splays Complex systems
Crevasse examples
Crevasses Crevasses are principal points of input of water & debris into glaciers –moulin (glacier mill) = a crevasses open across a glacial stream –randkluft –bergschrund
Crevasses Input of water & debris into glaciers –moulin –randkluft = break between ice and rock at valley wall –bergschrund = deep crevasses in ice, near valley wall
Subsurface Crevasse Formation Nath and Vaughn (2003) wanted to investigate the formation of crevasses at depths of ~10–30 meters Used ground penetrating radar (GPR) to show that crevasses occur several meters below the surface even where there are none at the surface Used linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) to investigate feasibility of fracture at depth
LEFM Assumes all materials have small cracks and defects, near which stresses are concentrated LEFM describes the initiation and propagation of fractures in brittle materials If initial cracks are more than a few centimeters long then they can propagate into a crevasse
GPR Data (Nath and Vaugn, 2003)
Initiation Starter cracks are generally initiated in brittle layers –Re-frozen meltwater –Sun crusts These cracks propagate during plastic flow –Varying dynamic tensile strength with depth –folding
Results They found very significant evidence for the feasibility of crevasse initiation at depth More work is currently in progress to determine if these cracks must propagate upward to eventually form surface crevasses
Icefalls
“Ogives are one of the most enigmatic indicators of glacier flow and are of two main types: wave ogives and band ogives” (Goodsell et al.) Ogives Ogives on Juneau icefield
Two major types : wave and band Occur down-ice from icefalls Useful in velocity calculations and to identify basal features (aka ~ Forbes or Alaskan bands) Ogive Basics
Alternating crests, convex down ice Velocity is a function of wavelength and amplitude Wave (swell-and-swale) Ogives
Ogives are formed annually, alternating crest = 1 year advancement Icefall travel time < 6 mo. James Forbes (mid 19 th century) indicator of velocity Wave (swell-and-swale) Ogives
Alternating convex bands of dark and light Color can come from debris or ice density Band Ogive
Ogives are alternating colors or ridges on glaciers Can form on surging glaciers Used to determine velocities or surge intervals Can be used to predict crevasse formation by identifying crevasse scars Conclusion
Deformation Fabrics Common fabrics found in ice and metamorphic rock Layering (stratification) Foliation surfaces Lineations Folds
Foliation Defined in rocks (Yardley 1989) = preferred orientation, caused by recrystallization of minerals into a planar fabric –Oriented perpendicular to maximum compressive stress Defined in ice by alternating fine- grained, granulated ice and coarse- grained bubbly ice (Rigsby, 1960) –Developed parallel to edges and bottom of glacier – induced shear couple
Foliation orientation
Lineations Defined in rocks (Yardley 1989) = elongation of recrystallized minerals –Induced under tensional stress environments – long axes parallel to stretching direction Elongation of polycrystals –Elongation axes perpendicular to c-axis (optic and crystallographic) –Rapid growth encourages elongation (Owston, 1951)
Stereographic projection
Folds As observed in rocks Classically have been interpreted as having formed during contractional and extensional tectonism As observed in ice Folding is expressed by alternating dirty bands and clean, hummocky ice (Malaspina Glacier) –Results from differential shearing along foliation planes and not compression of ice itself (Rigsby, 1960)
Glacier ice folding Recumbent folding (Tien Shan) Thrusting (no photo)
Sources of Glacial Debris Supraglacial –(dust, tephra, meteorites, bugs) –rockfall Englacial –crevasse fill –thrusting Subglacial –plucking
Rockfall Penny Ice Cap (Canada) – outlet glacier Rock walls Marginal debris Lateral/ medial moraines
Rockfall II Mer de Glace (France) Holocene trimline
Trimlines Big Timber Creek Moraines and trimline
1964 M 8.9 “Good Friday EQ” Sherman Glacier rock avalanche Glacier outcomes?
2002 M 7.9 Denali EQ Black Rapids Glacier panorama Rock avalanches – effects? By USGS; from AK DNR -
Debris in / on Ice Tulsequah Glacier (BC) Surface area Debris introduction to ice
Glacial Transport Mooneshine Gl. (Canada) Note 5’9” Bill Locke for scale Estimate shear strength? Rock wall source – angular Note fines in foreground and meltwater
Supra- and Englacial Processes II: the glacier terminus
Sources of Glacial Debris Supraglacial –rockfall Englacial –crevasse fill –thrusting Subglacial –plucking
Medial Moraines Mooneshine Glacier (Canada) Ridge ~3 m tall – how much is debris?
Multiple Medial Moraines Muldrow Glacier (Alaska Range)
Tributary Flow
Medial Moraine Evolution Penny Ice Cap –Outlet glacier –Concentration of debris –Supraglacial drainage –Debris-covered terminus
The Glacier Terminus Black Rapids Glacier –active ice –stagnant ice –(surges) –local reworking
Ablation Zone Chugach Mountains –Debris accumulation –Surplus of water and debris –Dynamics of flow of ice and debris –Evolution of local topography
Sources of Terminal Debris
Ice-cored Moraines Melt-out of ice over time f (climate) Last for decades to centuries (+?)
Melt-out Tills Surface melt –supraglacial –character of till? Basal melt –subglacial –character of till?
Flowtills Redistribution of supraglacial debris –Character?
Character of Glacial Debris Pangnirtung Pass (Canada) Note figure (6’3” Pete Birkeland) for scale No real limit to debris caliber
Till we meet again…