BISMARCK QUEST FOR A NEW “CONCERT OF EUROPE” 1873: “Three Emperors’ League” for Germany, Austria, & Russia 1878: Congress of Berlin settles Balkan affairs 1879: Austro-German Dual Alliance 1882: Triple Alliance includes Italy 1884: Berlin Congo Conference 1887: Bismarck’s Reinsurance Treaty with Russia 1890: Kaiser Wilhelm II allows the Reinsurance Treat to lapse 1892-94: Franco-Russian Alliance negotiated on the initiative of the generals

Marshal MacMahon, monarchist President of the Republic (1873-1879) Leon Gambetta, architect of republican election victories in 1877/78; he persuaded MacMahon to resign…. Marshal MacMahon, monarchist President of the Republic (1873-1879) Patrice de Mac Mahon, portrait officiel (Pierre Petit photographe), ca. 1875. The "Duke of Magenta" served as President of France from 1873 to 1879. He provoked a constitutional crisis in 1877 by appointing a conservative ministry but decided to resign in January 1879 after two successive elections yielded Republican majorities. SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patrice_de_Mac_Mahon.jpg Alphonse LEGROS, "Léon Gambetta" (1875; Musée d'Orsay). SOURCE: www.histoire-image.org

Monet, “La rue Montorgueil, June 30, 1878 Monet, “La rue Montorgueil, June 30, 1878.” The Paris World’s Fair of 1878 drew 6 million visitors and ended with a celebration of “Peace and Labor” Monet, "La rue Montorgueil (30 June 1878)," 1878. Oil on canvas; Musee d'Orsay (Grinnell Finearts Database). Paris opened its third World's Fair (Exposition universelle) on May 1, 1878. It proved a tremendous success, attracting six million visitors. The festivities climaxed on June 30, when the French government organized a celebration of "Peace and Labor." Every street in Paris was draped with the tricolor, and the whole city participated in a joyous street party, which seems to have marked a kind of ceremonial end to the bitter political wrangles of the years 1870-77. Note that President MacMahon had provoked the last major crisis in the foundation of the Third Republic just one year earlier, when he had dismissed the republican cabinet of Jules Simon in May 1877; by now, however, MacMahon accepted the principle that the cabinet was responsible to the Chamber of Deputies, where there was a secure republican majority. Monet, "Rue Saint Denis" (Paris celebrates on June 30, 1878). SOURCE: Charles Rearick, _Pleasures of the Belle Epoque: Entertainment and Festivity in Turn-of-the-Century France_ (New Haven, 1985), facing p. 17. 3

As Imperial Chancellor, Bismarck secured laws against domestic “Enemies of the Reich,” including socialist politicians and Catholic bishops (cartoon from 1874) The caption on the left reads: “The delegates Bebel and Liebknecht make use of the recess of the Reichstag to enjoy a free and happy walking tour from the fortress of Hubertsburg to Koenigstein prison.” On the right: “Bishop Melchers, now retired because of excessive episcopality in the face of his monarch, makes use of the now so popular assistance of the military to complete the move to his new place of residence.” (Paulus Melchers, Archbishop of Cologne, was arrested on 31 March 1874 after police broke into his palace; he was condemned for violation of the May Laws, imprisoned for six months, and then driven into exile. After ten years of exile, the Pope summoned him to Rome to serve in the College of Cardinals.) SOURCE: Ursula Koch, _Der Teufel in Berlin. Illustrierte politische Witzblaetter einer Metropole, 1848-1890_ (Cologne: C.W. Leske Verlag, 1991), p. 526.

After its defeat by Prussia, Austria created parliamentary government in 1867, with Home Rule for Hungary, but the parliaments in Vienna and Budapest were divided on ethnic, religious, and class lines. Austria's House of Parliament (the Reichsrat) in the 1890s (color photo lithograph from the collection of the LIbrary of Congress). SOURCE: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Wien_Parlament_um_1900.jpg The Hungarian House of Parliament, Budapest, built from 1885 to 1896. SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Budapest_Parlament1.jpg

THE MULTI-NATIONAL DUAL MONARCHY: Proportion of Germans in Austria: 33%. Proportion of Magyars in Hungary: 54%. Slavic subjects gained no political rights under the Ausgleich of 1867 Ethnic divisions in Austria-Hungary in 1900. In the Austrian half of the Empire (Cisleithania), German speakers were the largest single ethnic group but only made up 33% of the population. In the Hungarian half (Transleithania), Magyars made up 54% of the population but were hardly present in the provinces of Croatia and Transylvania. SOURCE: Patrick O'Brien, ed., OXFORD ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY_, rev. edn. (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 175.

The Second Pan-Slav Congress, Moscow, 1867, (the Czech Palacky now looks to Russia for leadership) The Pan-Slav Congress in Moscow in 1867, as depicted in a hostile Austrian cartoon; two prominent Czech politicians are depicted as young cubs eagerly seeking milk from the breast of the Russian bear. SOURCE: Heinz Gollwitzer, IMPERIALISM, p. 45.

Popular uprisings against the Turks began in Bosnia in 1875, spread to Serbia, & climaxed in Bulgaria in April 1876 Areas of rebellion by Bulgarian nationalists in the April Uprising of 1876. SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:April_Uprising_1876small8ur.jpg

Between 7,000 and 15,000 Bulgarians were killed by the Turks in May 1876: “The Bulgarian Martyresses” (Russia, 1877) Konstantin Makovsky, "The Bulgarian Martyresses" (1877). This Russian painter depicts rapes committed by the irregular Ottoman militia (the bashi-bazouks) during the suppressing of the Bulgarian April Uprising in 1876. The painting helped to arouse Russian public opinion in favor of a declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire in 1877. SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Konstantin_Makovsky_-_The_Bulgarian_martyresses.jpg

In the British House of Commons, the Liberal William Gladstone attacked Conservative Prime Minister Disraeli for complicity with the “Bulgarian Horrors.”. A British House of Commons debate from the late 1870s, where William Ewart Gladstone, the leader of the Liberal opposition, attacks Benjamin Disraeli (Conservative Prime Minister from 1874 to 1880). SOURCE: Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, & Frank Turner, _The Western Heritage_, 9th edn. (Upper Saddle Hill, New Jersey: Pearson, 2007), p. 756.

After agreeing that Austria could occupy Bosnia, Russia advanced into Bulgaria in 1877 The outcome of the Russo-Turkish War of 1875-77. SOURCE: http://www.uoregon.edu/~kimball/images/frn.MPR.1877.78.RTwrx.Ctq29.jpg

Anton von Werner, “The Congress of Berlin, June-July 1878” De Launay-Gorchakov-Disraeli-Andrássy-Bismarck-Shuvalov-Mehmed Ali Pasha (see Norman Rich, pp. 26-8) Anton von Wener, "The Delegates to the Berlin Congress of 1878" (painted in 1882). At the height of the socialist scare in the early summer of 1878, international affairs also demanded Bismarck’s attention. The Berlin Congress was convened from June 13 to July 13, 1878, as an international meeting to solve the Balkans question in the wake of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. Bismarck offered his services as an “honest broker” [ehrlicher Makler], thereby scoring a major diplomatic triumph. Originally, the Berlin senate hoped to organize a festive reception to mark the conclusion of the congress. But when the plan went awry, it used the allocated money to commission this painting from Anton von Werner (1843-1915). On March 22, 1881, the Kaiser’s 84th birthday, the artist presented the painting to the Berlin city fathers. Werner’s painting highlights a number of important participants in the congress, including British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881), seen at the left. The real focus of the viewer’s attention, however, is the trio in the immediate foreground, and, even more specifically, the handshake between Bismarck and the second-ranking Russian diplomat in attendance, Count Pyotr A. Schuvalov (1827-1889). The Austro-Hungarian representative, Count Gyula Andrássy (1823-1890), looks on. That Schuvalov enjoyed such good relations with Bismarck angered the leader of the Russian delegation, Prince Alexander M. Gorchakov (1798-1883) (seated at the left), who subsequently ensured that his career went downhill. Among the men standing at far right are Lord Salisbury, the British foreign secretary, and Lord Odo Russell, the British ambassador in Berlin (third and fourth from the end, respectively). The foreground handshake was partially orchestrated by the artist himself, who wanted the viewer to be able to focus on a relatively intimate group, as opposed to an undifferentiated collection of diplomats. But this still did not prevent critics from complaining that Werner had painted only a “cabinet of wax figures.” Werner had even suggested the setting, for the room in which the handshake took place was better lit than the one in which the main negotiations were held. SOURCE: Michael Epkenhans and Andreas von Seggern, _Leben im Kaiserreich. Deutschland um 1900_ (Stuttgart, 2007), p. 21. The diplomats shown, from left to right: von Haymerle, Károlyi, de Launay, Gortschakov (sitting), Waddington (background), Disraeli (standing, with Gortschakov‘s hand on his arm), Andrássy (standing in the middle), im Vordergrund), Bucher (fast verdeckt im Hintergrund), Otto von Bismarck shaking the hand of the Russian Shuvalov, and the Turkish delegates Sadullah Bey, Carathéodori, and Mehmed Ali Pascha. In the background between Bismarck and Shuvalov we see the German diplomats Friedrich von Holstein, Busch, and Herbert von Bismarck. SOURCE: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Berliner_kongress.jpg

The Treaty of Berlin (1878) recognized Serbia & Rumania as sovereign and divided Bulgaria (until 1886) Map from _An Historical Atlas_ by Robert H. Labberton, E. Elaxton and Co., 1884. SOURCE: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/eastern_europe1878.jpg

THE DUAL ALLIANCE OF OCT. 1879 (Austria+Germany) ART. 1: “Should, contrary to their hope, and against the loyal desire of the two High Contracting Parties, one of the two Empires be attacked by Russia, the High Contracting Parties are bound to come to the assistance one of the other with the whole war strength of their Empires, and accordingly only to conclude peace together and upon mutual agreement.” ART. 2: “Should one of the High Contracting Parties be attacked by another Power, the other High Contracting Party binds itself hereby, not only not to support the aggressor against its high Ally, but to observe at least a benevolent neutral attitude towards its fellow Contracting Party.” ART. 3: This treaty was to be kept secret, but if Russia’s armaments proved menacing, “the two High Contracting Parties would consider it their loyal obligation to let the Emperor Alexander know, at least confidentially, that they must consider an attack on either of them as directed against both.”

French marines hoist the tricolor at Tunis, May 1881, after Bey Muhammed-es-Sadok accepted French “protection”. Hoisting the French tricolor at Tunis, May 1881 (published in L'ILLUSTRATION). The inset depicts Bey Muhammed-es-Sadok. From Pakenham, SCRAMBLE, facing p. 166.

British troops in Egypt establish a protectorate in 1882 British troops in Egypt relax following the bombardment of Alexandria in 1882. From Gollwitzer, IMPERIALISM, p. 35.

“The Partition of the Dark Continent” (Berlin cartoon, June 1884) Hermann Scherenberg, "The Partition of the Dark Continent," ULK, June 12, 1884. "The German dreamer, awake at last, says to Zeus: I will no longer be so stupid as to permit you to ask me, Where were you when I divided up the earth?" The cartoonist refers to a poem by Schiller from 1795, "The Partition of the Earth." France had just established a protectorate in Tunisia, to link up with its holdings in Algeria and West Africa, and Great Britain had just established a protectorate in Egypt, while expanding its holdings in the Cape Colony. So the cartoonist applauds the decision by the formerly dreamy Michael to wake up to modern realities and seize a foothold in Southwest Africa (Angra Pequena, today Namibia). Other German colonies soon followed in Cameroon, Togo, and German East Africa (i.e., Tanzania), as well as German Samoa, a foothold in New Guinea, and a treaty port in northeastern China. SOURCE: Ursula Koch, _Der Teufel in Berlin. Illustrierte politische Witzblaetter einer Metropole, 1848-1890_ (Cologne: C.W. Leske Verlag, 1991), p. 648.

ART. 6: The existence & contents of this treaty will be secret. BUT BISMARCK WAS INTERESTED MAINLY IN EUROPE: TRIPLE ALLIANCE OF MAY 1882 (Germany-Austria-Italy) ART. 2: “In case Italy, without direct provocation on her part, should be attacked by France, the two other Contracting Parties shall be bound to lend assistance with all their forces. The same obligation shall devolve upon Italy in case of any aggression …by France against Germany.” ART. 3: “If one, or two, of the High Contracting Parties, without direct provocation on their part, should be attacked by two or more Great Powers non-signatory to the present Treaty, the casus foederis will arise simultaneously for all the High Contracting Parties.” ART. 4: “In case a Great Power non-signatory to the present Treaty should threaten the security of one of the High Contracting Parties, and the threatened Party should find itself forced to make war against it, the two others bind themselves to observe towards their Ally a benevolent neutrality.” ART. 6: The existence & contents of this treaty will be secret. http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/The_Triple_Alliance_%28The_English_Tranlation%29

“The Triple Alliance,” Kladderadatsch, 1883: France & Russia are left out in the cold This German cartoon published in KLADDERADATSCH in 1883 depicts the futile efforts by France and Russia to disrupt the Triple Alliance; Bismarck and his Austrian and Italian allies enjoy the best spots in the house, where they can warm themselves against the oven chimney. Note that the cartoonist assumes Russian hostility to Germany, ignoring the close diplomatic ties cultivated by Bismarck in the Three Emperors’ League of 1881 and the Reinsurance Treaty of 1887. From Gollwitzer, IMPERIALISM, p. 33.

ART. 3: The Bosporus & Dardanelles must be closed in wartime GERMAN-RUSSIAN REINSURANCE TREATY, JUNE 1887: Did its terms conflict with those of the Dual Alliance? ARTICLE 1: “In case one of the High Contracting Parties should find itself at war with a third Great Power, the other would maintain a benevolent neutrality towards it, and would devote its efforts to the localization of the conflict. This provision would not apply to a war against Austria or France in case this war should result from an attack directed against one of these two latter Powers by one of the High Contracting Parties.” ART. 2: “Germany recognizes the rights historically acquired by Russia in the Balkan Peninsula, and particularly the legitimacy of her preponderant …influence in Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. The two courts engage to admit no modification of the territorial status quo of the said peninsula without a previous agreement between them.” ART. 3: The Bosporus & Dardanelles must be closed in wartime ART. 5: The existence & contents of this treaty will be secret SOURCE: http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty

THE DUAL ALLIANCE FORCED GERMAN GENERAL ALBERT von SCHLIEFFEN TO PLAN FOR A 2-FRONT WAR Europe in 1900. SOURCE: http://www.unlv.edu/faculty/pwerth/Europe-1900.jpg

The Pilot Leaves the Ship, Kaiser Wilhelm II (1888-1918) The Pilot Leaves the Ship, Punch, March 1890 Kaiser Wilhelm II (1890) In reality, Wilhelm von Hohenzollern (1859-1941), King of Prussia and Emperor of Germany from 1888 to 1918, was less resolute and imperious than this image would suggest. The painting perhaps better reflects his favorite manner of self-presentation – as part noble sovereign, part military leader. Unfortunately, the public generally focused on the downside of this equation, perceiving him as imperial, haughty, belligerent, and obsessed with military affairs. The Kaiser (here age 31) delighted in posing in his imperial robe, complete with his crown, scepter, and sword, against the backdrop of monumental neoclassical architecture. Together with his frequent attendance of naval and army maneuvers, Wilhelm’s numerous ill-considered comments – including those associated with the “Hun Speech” of 1900 and the “Daily Telegraph Affair” of 1908 – created the impression at home and abroad that Germany had abandoned Bismarck’s postulate of a “satiated" empire and was embarking upon a program of expansion. Painting by Max Johann Bernhard Koner (1854-1900), 1890 (war loss). SOURCE: http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_image.cfm?image_id=2282 "The Pilot Leaving the Ship," cartoon published by Sir John Teniel in PUNCH, March 1890. SOURCE: Deutscher Bundestag, ed., _Fragen an die deutsche Geschichte. Historische Ausstellung im Reichstagsgebaeude in Berlin: Katalog_, 7th edn (Bonn, 1981), IV/151.

“Chancellors Come in Three Sizes,” i. e “Chancellors Come in Three Sizes,” i.e., Bismarck, Caprivi, & Hohenlohe, Lustige Blätter, January 1895. Bismarck served as prime minister and chancellor for 28 years; his successor, General Leo von Caprivi, was dismissed after four years, and his successor, the Bavarian aristocrat Prince Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe, was almost unknown outside Bavaria at the time of his appointment. Note how the relative importance of the party leaders in the Reichstag grows as the chancellor shrinks: they are August Bebel of the SPD, Eugen Richter of the Radical Liberals, and Wilhelm Freiherr von Hammerstein of the Conservative Party. SOURCE: Der Teufel in Berlin, p. 670.

Friedrich von Holstein, the top official at the Foreign Office from 1890 to 1906, and Count Albert von Schlieffen, army chief of staff, 1891-1906 Friedrich von Holstein (1837-1909)behind his desk at the German Foreign Office, probably photographed the day he retired on April 6, 1906. SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S28606,_Friedrich_von_Holstein.jpg

Tsar Alexander III (born 1845, reigned 1881-1894) found that his diplomats urged friendship with Germany, but his generals, an alliance with France Ivan Kramskoi, Portrait of Tsar Alexander III (1845-1894), painted in 1886. SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kramskoy_Alexander_III.jpg

ARCHITECTS OF THE FRANCO-RUSSIAN ALLIANCE General Raoul de Boisdeffre, Deputy Chief of Staff, 1890-94, then Chief General Nikolai Obruchev, Army Chief of Staff, 1881-97 (who had a French wife) General Nikolai Obruchev (1830-1904), architect of victory over Turkey in 1877/78, chief of staff of the Russian army, 1881-1897. SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87.jpg

Franco-Russian Military Convention of August 1892 If France is attacked by Germany or by Italy supported by Germany, Russia will employ all its available forces to attack Germany. If Russia is attacked by Germany or by Austria supported by Germany, France will employ all its available forces to combat Germany.  In case the forces of the Triple Alliance or of one of its members begin to mobilize, France and Russia will immediately and simultaneously mobilize all of their forces and deploy them as close to their borders as possible, as soon as the enemy mobilization is announced…. The forces available for deployment against Germany will amount to 1,300,000 men on the part of France, and 700-800,000 men on the part of Russia. These forces are dedicated to combating Germany simultaneously from the East and West in the most effective manner possible. The military general staffs of the two countries will deliberate together to prepare and execute the measures outlined above…. France and Russia will not conclude a separate peace.  This convention will have the same duration as the Triple Alliance.

Official Visit by Tsar Nicholas II to France in 1901 Albert Pierre Dawant, "Official Visit by the Russian Monarchs to France in 1901" (Chateau de Versailles). The artist emphasizes the martial nature of the Franco-Russian alliance; the Empress of Russia is the only woman depicted. Tsar Nicholas II and a substantial majority of the rest of the men wear military uniforms festooned with medals. The tsar's Cossack escort seems to be spoiling for a fight. SOURCE: http://www.histoire-image.org/site/oeuvre/zoom.php?oeuvre_id=1237