Lecture 2 1

Basic database terminology and concept 2

DATA REPRESENTATION 0 Analog vs. Digital 0 Digital 0 Two states 0 (1) on 0 (0) off 3

DATA REPRESENTATION 0 Binary number system 0 Combination of ones and zeroes represent characters 4

Bit and Byte 0 Bit 0 Short for binary digit 0 Smallest element of data 0 Either zero or one 0 Byte 0 Group of eight bits, which operate as a single unit 0 Represents one character or number 5

Representing Characters in Bytes 6

Using Binary Code to Calculate 7

Hierarchy of Data 0 Bit 0 Byte (Character) 0 Field 0 Record 0 File 0 Database 8

Database objects/tools 0 Table 0 Form 0 Query 0 Report 9

Table 0 A table is a grid of rows and columns 10 R O W COLUMN

Field 0 A single trait or characteristic about a subject of a table NAMATARIKH LAHIR JANTINANO TELGAJI 11

Data type 0 Characteristic designate for an Access field 0 Text 0 Number 0 Currency 0 Date/time 0 Yes/No 0 Memo 0 OLE object 0 Hyperlink 12

Exercise 0 Salutation (Mr., Mrs., Ms.) 0 Date of birth 0 Home address 0 Whether a student is allergy to medication 0 The words to describe type of allergy 0 Photo of a student 0 How many sibling in the house 0 Salary 13

Record 0 A group of traits about a particular item 0 Simply a row in a table! NAMATARIKH LAHIR JANTINANO TELGAJI … … 14

Value 0 The actual data entered at the intersection of a row and column 15

Primary keys 0 Key is a field that serves a specific function within a table. 0 AutoNumber 0 Requirement for a relational database. Means, in a field that is the primary key, there can never be duplicate data 0 example 16

It’s about nothing: Null values and Zero- Length strings 0 “Report that say something hasn’t happen are always interesting to me because, as we know, there are known knowns, there are things we know we know. We also know there are known unknowns; that is to say, we know there are some things we do not know. But there are also unknown unknowns-the ones we don’t know we don’t know” At a press conference in 2003 Donald Rumsfeld Secretary of Defense (in the Bush Administration) 17

It’s about nothing: Null values and Zero-Length strings 0 Example: Student NameHas Tel. No.?Tel. No. JasmanYes AsmahNoDoes not exist SyafiqYesExist, but we don’t know it ElangovanDon’t knowDon’t know if there’s one 18

Activity 2 19

Database Structures 20

Database Structures 0 In all IS, data resources must be organized and structured in some logical manner so that they can be accessed easily, processed efficiently, retrieved quickly, and managed effectively. 21

Database Structures 0 Common database structures… 0 Hierarchical 0 Network 0 Relational 0 Object-oriented 0 Multi-dimensional 22

Hierarchical Structure 0 Early DBMS structure 0 Records arranged in tree-like structure 0 Relationships are one-to-many 23

Network Structure 0 Used in some mainframe DBMS packages 0 Many-to-many relationships 24

Relational Structure 0 Most widely used structure 0 Data elements are stored in tables 0 Row represents a record; column is a field 0 Can relate data in one file with data in another, if both files share a common data element 25

Relational Operations 0 Select 0 Create a subset of records that meet a stated criterion 0 Example: employees earning more than $30,000 0 Join 0 Combine two or more tables temporarily 0 Looks like one big table 0 Project 0 Create a subset of columns in a table 26

Multidimensional Structure 0 Variation of relational model 0 Uses multidimensional structures to organize data 0 Data elements are viewed as being in cubes 0 Popular for analytical databases that support Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) 27

Multidimensional Model 28

Object-Oriented Structure 0 An object consists of 0 Data values describing the attributes of an entity 0 Operations that can be performed on the data 0 Encapsulation 0 Combine data and operations 0 Inheritance 0 New objects can be created by replicating some or all of the characteristics of parent objects 29

Object-Oriented Structure 30 Source: Adapted from Ivar Jacobsen, Maria Ericsson, and Ageneta Jacobsen, The Object Advantage: Business Process Reengineering with Object Technology (New York: ACM Press, 1995), p , Association for Computing Machinery. By permission.

Object-Oriented Structure 0 Used in object-oriented database management systems (OODBMS) 0 Supports complex data types more efficiently than relational databases 0 Examples: graphic images, video clips, web pages 0 Example use for product design 31

Evaluation of Database Structures 0 Hierarchical 0 Works for structured, routine transactions 0 Can’t handle many-to-many relationship 0 Network 0 More flexible than hierarchical 0 Unable to handle ad hoc requests 0 Relational 0 Easily responds to ad hoc requests 0 Easier to work with and maintain 0 Not as efficient/quick as hierarchical or network 32

Database Structures Source: Management Information Systems by James A. O'Brien and George Marakas. McGraw- Hill Higher Education 33

Management information systems and the relevance to educational organization 34

Foundations of Information Systems 35

Foundation Concepts 0 Why study information systems and information technology? 0 Vital component of successful businesses 0 Helps businesses expand and compete 0 Improves efficiency and effectiveness of business processes 0 Facilitates managerial decision making and workgroup collaboration 36

What is a System? 0 A group of interrelated or interacting elements forming a unified whole 37

What is a System? A set of interrelated components With a clearly defined boundary Working together To achieve a common set of objectives 38

What is a System? 0 A system is… 0 A set of interrelated components 0 With a clearly defined boundary 0 Working together 0 To achieve a common set of objectives 0 By accepting inputs and producing outputs 0 In an organized transformation process 39

What is an Information System? 0 An organized combination of… 0 People 0 Hardware and software 0 Communication networks 0 Data resources 0 Policies and procedures 0 This system… 0 Stores, retrieves, transforms, and disseminates information in an organization 40

Basic component of IS: 1. Hardware: it’s a set of devices such as processor, monitor, keyboard, and printer. Together, they accept data and information as an input, process them, and display them as an output. 2. Software: it’s a set of programs that instruct the hardware to process data. 3. A database: is a collection of related files, tables, relations, and so on, that stores data and the associations among them. 41

Basic component of IS: 4. A network: is a connecting system that permits the sharing of resources by different computers. It can be wireless. 5. Policies and Procedures: are the set of instructions about how to combine the above components in order to process information and generate the desired output. 6. People: are those individuals who work with the system, interface with it, or use its output. 0 How would these information relevant to your project? 42

Information Technologies 0 Information Systems 0 All the components and resources necessary to deliver information and functions to the organization 0 Could be paper based 0 Information Technologies – technological side of IS 0 Hardware, software, networking, data management 0 Our focus will be on computer-based information systems (CBIS) 43

Recaps 0 Data 0 Elementary description of things, events, activities, and transactions that are recorded, classified, and stored, but not organized to convey any specific meeting 0 Information 0 Data that has been organized so that they have meaning and value to the recipient 0 Knowledge 0 Information that has been organized and processed to convey understanding, experience and expertise as they apply to a current problem or activity 44

Information System 0 Primary Purpose: 0 Collects data, processes it into information then converts information into knowledge for a specific purpose. 45

IS Activities 0 Input of data resources 0 Data entry activities 0 Processing of data into information 0 Calculations, comparisons, sorting, and so on 0 Output of information products 0 Messages, reports, forms, graphic images 0 Storage of data resources 0 Data elements and databases 0 Control of system performance 0 Monitoring and evaluating feedback 46

Recognizing Information Systems 0 As professional of EMIS, you should be able to look at an information system and identify… 0 The people, hardware, software, data, and network resources they use 0 The type of information products they produce 0 The way they perform input, processing, output, storage, and control activities 47

Recognizing Information Systems (Group Discussion) 0 We will try to recognize and visualized IS in several organizations in terms of following characters: 0 The people, hardware, software, data, and network resources they use 0 The type of information products they produce 0 The way they perform input, processing, output, storage, and control activities 48

Type of information systems Manual information systems Informal information systems Formal information systems Computer-based information systems (CBIS) 49

System Concepts: A Foundation 0 System concepts help us understand… 0 Technology: hardware, software, data management, telecommunications networks 0 Applications: to support inter-connected information systems 0 Development: developing ways to use information technology includes designing the basic components of information systems 0 Management: emphasizes the quality, strategic business value, and security of an organization’s information systems 50

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Other System Characteristics 0 If a system is one of the components of a larger system, it is a subsystem 0 The larger system is an environment 0 Several systems may share the same environment 0 Some may be connected via a shared boundary, or interface 0 Types of systems… 52

System types SimpleComplex Has few components, and the relationship or interaction between elements is uncomplicated and straightforward Has many elements that are highly related and interconnected OpenClosed Interact with its environmentHas no interaction with the environment StableDynamic Undergoes very little change over timeUndergoes rapid and constant change over time AdaptiveNon-adaptive Is able to change in response to changes in the environment Is not able to change in response to changes in the environment PermanentTemporary Exists for a relatively long period of timeExists for only relatively short period of time 53

Major Capabilities of Information Systems 1. Facilitate work in hazardous environments. 2. Facilitate interpretation of vast amounts of data. 3. Perform high-speed, high-volume, numerical computations. 4. Store huge amounts of information in an easy-to- access, yet small space. 5. Provide fast, accurate, and inexpensive communication within and between organizations. 6. Allow quick and inexpensive access to vast amounts of information worldwide. 54

Major Capabilities of Information Systems 7. Enable communication and collaboration anywhere, any time. 8. Increase the effectiveness and efficiency of people working in groups in one place or in several locations. 9. Vividly present information that challenges the human mind. 10. Automate both semiautomatic business processes and manually done tasks. 11. Facilitate global trade. 12. Can be wireless, thus supporting unique applications anywhere. 13. Accomplish all of the above much less expensively than when done manually. 55

All IS have purpose and social context 56

Purpose 0 A typical purpose is to provide solution to a (business) problem. 0 Example: 0 To coordinate internal units 0 To collaborate 0 To improve performance 57

Social context 0 The social context of the system consists of the values and beliefs that determine what is admissible and possible within the culture of the people and groups involved. 58

Discussion 2 0 In the educational context of organization, describe the characteristics of IS available and match them to the System types which you have learnt. Use the following table for discussion: 59

System types SimpleComplex Has few components, and the relationship or interaction between elements is uncomplicated and straightforward Has many elements that are highly related and interconnected OpenClosed Interact with its environmentHas no interaction with the environment StableDynamic Undergoes very little change over timeUndergoes rapid and constant change over time AdaptiveNon-adaptive Is able to change in response to changes in the environment Is not able to change in response to changes in the environment PermanentTemporary Exists for a relatively long period of timeExists for only relatively short period of time 60

Management information system 61

Management Information System Concept of General System Stages and Functions of Management Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making Control Principle: Feedbacks Organization’s Structure and Process Information Technology Influences Condition of Data, Information and Communication Factor Behavior MIS Development and Operation

Management Information System Concept of General System Stages and Functions of Management Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making Control Principle: Feedbacks Organization’s Structure and Process Information Technology Influences Data Condition, Information and Communication Factor Behavior MIS Development and Operation

Data Condition, Information and Communication Processing data into information and for communications, for the users are very important in MIS Data are collected facts and numbers which are kept, analysed, compared, and calculated to produced messages in the form that are useful to the users (which we call it as information)

Data Condition, Information and Communication In designing MIS, despite producing reports, things such as: 0 source of information, 0 means for information dissemination, and 0 the meaning of particular information need a crucial attention. These are important to the MIS designer, as well as to the users. As a conclusion, data are costly; information that are well delivered; and with actions taken, shall gives values.

Management Information System Concept of General System Stages and Functions of Management Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making Control Principle: Feedbacks Organization’s Structure and Process Information Technology Influences Condition of Data, Information and Communication Factor Behavior MIS Development and Operation

The Concept of General System There are a number of General System Theory that can be used to describe ‘organisation and MIS’ GST emphasizes not only the needs to focus on divisions of the systems or organisations (reductionist approach), but also to look at these systems or organisations as a whole (holistic approach) System consisting of sub-systems or organisation consisting departments and divisions where all of those are interacting with each others

The Concept of General System Relationships between departments need to be given serious attention, or otherwise the whole system will not be functioning efficiently and slowing-down responses of transformation – which very important to keep on moving Reductionist approach discriminate relationship between departments and give more attention to each individual departments as an entity separately (which not always be the case)

Management Information System Concept of General System Stages and Functions of Management Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making Control Principle: Feedbacks Organization’s Structure and Process Information Technology Influences Condition of Data, Information and Communication Factor Behavior MIS Development and Operation

Organisation’s Structure and Process Organisation make every effort to have a structure of procedures and objectives that suite to any transformations in their environment MIS should helps organisation to achieve this objective, to plan and control processes and operations, to handle uncertainty and to adapt with transformations, and also to urge for transformations MIS designer should aware of various influential factors to the organisation This, includes transformation in pattern of organisation management which start with mechanistic concept to the idea that acknowledged human and their characteristics

Management Information System Concept of General System Stages and Functions of Management Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making Control Principle: Feedbacks Organization’s Structure and Process Information Technology Influences Condition of Data, Information and Communication Factor Behavior MIS Development and Operation

Stages and Functions of Management The value of information depends on actions taken into place that are resulting from information handling Information experts need to be clear of the types of tasks and management functions and therefore they could produced information that can be utilised by the management parties Typically, duties and management functions are different to one another depending on their position in the organisation

Stages and Functions of Management 0 Management functions can be categorised into 5 fields and they are: 0 Planning 0 Decision Making 0 Arrangement and coordination 0 Leadership and motivation 0 Controlling

Stages and Functions of Management 0 In general, there are 3 levels of management in an organisation: 0 Top Management or Strategic Management 0 Management of Middle level or Tactical Management 0 Junior Management or Operational Management 0 3 out of 5 fields of duties, uses information the most i.e.: 0 Planning 0 Decision Making 0 Control

Management Information System Concept of General System Stages and Functions of Management Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making Control Principle: Feedbacks Organization’s Structure and Process Information Technology Influences Condition of Data, Information and Communication Factor Behavior MIS Development and Operation

Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making The main task in management is planning and making decision Planning is a process of deciding ahead what should be done and how it is done The result of planning is a plan that to be used as a guidance in regulating activity or task and taking action Planning is linked closely with decision making Without decision and action, the planning process is of no use

Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making To ensure planning and decision are well tailored, information gains by the manager must be accurate and appropriate MIS designer must know types of planning and decision which may be made in every levels of management, so therefore an accurate and appropriate information could be delivered Decision Making can be classified as programmed and un-programmed matters

Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making Programmed decision is a routine decision and regulated repeatedly, and decision rules are known Un-programmed decision is unstructured decision and nature of problem and decision rules are complex and less known. Various kind of information and procedures are needed for different kind of decision. Therefore, MIS must be designed according to types of decisions, how decision are made, how decision maker relate decision to the organisation, the condition of the organisation, the environment and so on.

Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making Both parties - manager and information expert need to understand and accept these approaches and is a prerequisite for effective MIS design Manager and system expert of the system used must know how to distinguish these two notions: effectiveness and efficiency effectiveness  Doing things right which produced desirable outcome efficiency  resources handling measures to achieve outcome

Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making There might be an organisation that produced wrong outcome in efficient way, therefore the organisation is considered as not effective A good management concentrate on: what must be done, before thinking about how to do it and IS should helps these

Management Information System Concept of General System Stages and Functions of Management Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making Control Principle: Feedbacks Organization’s Structure and Process Information Technology Influences Condition of Data, Information and Communication Factor Behavior MIS Development and Operation

Control Principle Much efforts for lower and middle management levels are control Control is a process to ensure operations are progressing as planned Usually done by making comparison the real output to what have been targeted. The error will be fixed especially by adjusting the input so therefore the activity taken place is on track that achieved the target

Control Principle 0 INPUT  PROSES  OUTPUT  MONITOR AND COMPARE  INPUT ADAPTATION (Feedback control loop) 0 If the existing feedback system could not fully control the process, therefore it is more suitable to use FEEDFORWARD 0 FEEDFORWARD  monitor at the early stage of process, helps to adapt immediately rather waiting at the final stage

Discussion 3 0 Based on the table given, discuss the control strategies for both School-based management and External control management. 84

85 Assumptions about education -Multiplicity of educational goals Complex and changing educational environment Need for educational reforms Effectiveness and adaptation oriented Pursuit of quality  Unification of educational goals  Simple and nearly static educational environment  No need for educational reforms  Standardization and stability oriented  Pursuit of quantity Theories used to manage schools Principle of equifinality:  Many different ways to achieve goals  Emphasizes flexibility Principle of standard structure:  Standard methods and procedures to achieve goals  Emphasizes generalizability Principle of decentralization:  Problems are inevitable, should be solved at where they happen in time  Looks for efficiency and problem-solving Principle of centralization:  Things big or small are carefully controlled to avoid problems  Pursues procedural control Principle of self-managing system:  Self-managing  Actively exploitative  responsible Principle of implementing system:  Externally controlled  Passively receptive  Not accountable Principle of human initiative:  Develops internal human resources  Wide participation of school members Principle of structural control:  Enforces external supervision  Expansion of bureaucratic system Adapted from Y.C. Cheng (1993) School-based management vs. external control management

Management Information System Concept of General System Stages and Functions of Management Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making Control Principle: Feedbacks Organization’s Structure and Process Information Technology Influences Condition of Data, Information and Communication Factor Behavior MIS Development and Operation

Technology influences If we misused the technology especially without carrying out complete analysis of the management and organization problem, it shall not benefit, but most probably wasting the money spent Similarly, workers without sufficient training who to handle the computer, will not get the job done properly.

Classification of MIS 0 By organizational level 0 By the type of support provided 88

Organization Level Strategic Tactical Operational 89

90 Org. A Org. B Org. C Human Resources ISFinance IS Product IS Administrative IS Inter-organizational Information Sys. Organizational Information systems Departmental Information systems

Fundamental Roles of IS in Organization 91 O'Brien, James; Marakas, George 2008

Types of Information Systems 0 Operations Support Systems 0 Efficiently process business transactions 0 Control industrial processes 0 Support communication and collaboration 0 Update corporate databases 0 Management Support Systems 0 Provide information as reports and displays 0 Give direct computer support to managers during decision-making 92

Purposes of Information Systems 93 O'Brien, James; Marakas, George 2008

Operations Support Systems 0 What do they do? 0 Efficiently process business transactions 0 Control industrial processes 0 Support communications and collaboration 0 Update corporate databases 94

Types of Operations Support Systems 95 0 Transaction Processing Systems 0 Record and process business transactions 0 Examples: sales processing, inventory systems, accounting systems 0 Process Control Systems 0 Monitor and control physical processes 0 Example: using sensors to monitor chemical processes in a petroleum refinery 0 Enterprise Collaboration Systems 0 Enhance team and workgroup communication 0 Examples: , video conferencing

Two Ways to Process Transactions 0 Batch Processing 0 Accumulate transactions over time and process periodically 0 Example: a bank processes all checks received in a batch at night 0 Online Processing 0 Process transactions immediately 0 Example: a bank processes an ATM withdrawal immediately 96

Management Support Systems 0 What do they do? 0 Provide information and support for effective decision making by managers 0 Management information systems 0 Decision support systems 0 Executive information systems 97

Types of Management Support Systems 0 Management Information Systems (MIS) 0 Reports and displays 0 Example: daily sales analysis reports 0 Decision Support Systems (DSS) 0 Interactive and ad hoc support 0 Example: a what-if analysis to determine where to spend advertising dollars 0 Executive Information Systems (EIS) 0 Critical information for executives and managers 0 Example: easy access to actions of competitors 98

Other Information Systems 0 Expert Systems 0 Provide expert advice 0 Example: credit application advisor 0 Knowledge Management Systems 0 Support creation, organization, and dissemination of business knowledge throughout company 0 Example: intranet access to best business practices 99

Measuring IT Success 0 Efficiency 0 Minimize cost, time, and use of information resources 0 Effectiveness 0 Support business strategies 0 Enable business processes 0 Enhance organizational structure and culture 0 Increase customer and business value 100

Developing IS Solutions 101 O'Brien, James; Marakas, George 2008

Information System Resources 0 People Resources 0 Specialists 0 End users 0 Hardware Resources 0 Machines 0 Media 0 Software Resources 0 Programs 0 Procedures 102

Information System Resources 0 Data Resources 0 Product descriptions, customer records, employee files, inventory databases 0 Network Resources 0 Communications media, communications processors, network access and control software 0 Information Resources 0 Management reports and business documents using text and graphics displays, audio responses, and paper forms 103