13th century: Increased contact with other cultures (e.g. Muslims, Mongols) Increased discrimination against outsiders (e.g. Muslims, Jews, heretics, lepers, homosexuals) Passing of Classical texts and later works on these into Europe (e.g. Aristotle, btw and 1280)

5th c. Fall of the Roman Empire Life of Boethius, who translated some works on elementary logic into Latin 10th-12th c. Muslim and Jewish thinkers trying to harmonise Aristotle with their faiths Avicebron (Solomon ben Gabirol, ) Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon, 1135 Avicenna (Ibn Sina, )-1204) Averroës (Ibn Rushd, )

12th c. Works of Aristotle, along with commentaries by Jewish and Muslim authors, translated from Arabic in Sicily and, especially, Spain Mid-13th c. Original Greek texts available Old Logic: Older texts translated by Boethius New Logic: Everything else!

Four Elements: EarthAir FireWater

“Prime Mover” Astronomy/Astrology Alchemy

Four humours (following Galen (129-c. 216)) BloodYellow Bile PhlegmBlack Bile

Robert Grosseteste ( ): Bishop of Lincoln First-hand knowledge Optics and light Experimental falsification

Roger Bacon ( ) Franciscan Experimental science

Jean Buridan (c ) and the Theory of Impetus: Aristotle: Buridan:

Aristotle on theology: Asserting that universe is eternal Seemingly denying immortality of soul 13th c. Church tries to ban or expurgate Aristotle’s works 1255 Study for MA at Paris includes study of all Aristotle’s scientific works, unexpurgated

Augustinian school of thought: incl. Bonaventure (Franciscan, ) Seeking to preserve pure teachings of St Augustine of Hippo (d. 430) Intuitive knowledge and goodness of will Need for divine illumination Universe created by God Rejecting opposing philosophical ideas

Latin Averroist school of thought: incl. Siger of Brabant (c ) Accepting Averroës’ commentaries on Aristotle as true interpretation, and Aristotle’s doctrines as irrefutable conclusions of human reason Universe eternal; souls absorbed into “active intellect” when died, but also believe God created universe and human souls immortal (“double truth”)

Son of Italian baron Studies at Naples 1244 Joins Dominicans Studies under Albertus Magnus (c ) Thomas Aquinas ( )

1252 Starts lecturing at Paris At papal court Then back in Paris until death Thomas Aquinas ( )

Commentaries on Old Testament, New Testament and Aristotle’s works Treatises on disputed points Summa Contra Gentiles (on natural religion) Summa Theologiae (synthesis on nature of universe, human’s place within it) Dialectical method

Thomas Aquinas ( ) Truths of reason and truths of faith, never conflicting Human mind, through reason, can learn truth (Aristotle), but some truths only known because revealed. Supernatural truths complementing rational knowledge Argues against assertions of Aristotle that contradict Christianity using reason rather than scripture

Thomas Aquinas ( ) Emphasis on divine reason Human reason as link between world of nature and pure spiritual being of God Five proofs for existence of God: 1. First mover4. Gradation 2. Efficient cause5. “Intelligent 3. Necessary existenceDesign”

Thomas Aquinas ( ) On human nature: Rational ethics enabling humanity to attain proper end of earthly felicity (Aristotle), but humanity also has higher purpose: contemplation of God On politics: State as natural to humanity (Aristotle), needing to be governed by rational rulers, but church also needed to enable humans to attain supernatural destiny