Course: Ilmu Sosial Untuk Psikologi Collonialism and Development, Cultural Exchange and Survival

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill This chapter introduces students to the history and effects of colonialism, especially on the part of the British and French. The chapter also discusses the continuing development and industrialization of third- world countries, and some of the problems caused by these changes. Colonialism and Development

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Imperialism  Imperialism refers to a policy of extending rule of a nation or empire over foreign nations and taking and holding foreign colonies.  Colonialism refers to the political, social, economic, and cultural domination of a territory and its people by a foreign power for an extended period of time.  Imperialism is as old as the state.  Modern colonialism began with the Age of Discovery during which European nations founded colonies throughout the New World.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill British Colonialism  The search for resources and new markets to increase profits fueled British colonialism.  The first phase of British colonialism was concentrated in New World, west Africa, and India and came to a close with the American Revolution.  During the second period of colonialism, Britain eventually controlled most of India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and large portions of eastern and southern Africa.  British colonial efforts were justified by what Kipling called “white man’s burden” which asserted that native peoples were not capable of governing themselves and needed the white, British colonialist provide and maintain order.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill British Colonialism Map of the British empire in 1765 and 1914.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill French Colonialism  French colonialism was driven more by the state, the church, and the military, rather than by business interests.  The first phase of French colonial efforts were focused in Canada, the Louisiana Territory, the Caribbean, and west Africa.  During the second phase of French colonialism (1870 to World War II), the empire grew to include most of north Africa and Indochina.  The ideological legitimization for French colonialism was mission civilisatrice (similar to “white man’s burden”); to spread French culture, language, and religion throughout the colonies.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill French Colonialism  The French used two forms of colonial rule.  Indirect rule refers to the French practice of governing through native political structures and leaders.  Direct rule refers to the French practice of imposing new governments upon native populations. Indochina fell under French colonial control in In this photo, from 1920, a Frenchman gets a ride in a richshaw (pousse-pousse). Photo Credit: Roger Viollet/ Gamma Liaison

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill French Colonialism Map of the height of the French empire around 1914.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Colonialism and Identity  Ethnic and political distinctions around the world were severely disrupted by colonialism.  For example, many of the modern political boundaries in west Africa are based on linguistic, political, and economic contrasts that are the result of European colonial policies in the region.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Colonialism and Identity Map of Africa showing colonial divisions after the Conference of Berlin (1885).

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Postcolonial Studies  Postcolonial studies refers to research that targets the interactions between European nations and the societies they colonized.  The term has also been used to refer to the second half of the 20th century.  The term may also be used to signify a position against imperialism and Eurocentrism. This photograph was taken recently at the Jockey Club in Nairobi, Kenya. Several traces of colonialism are still visible. Photo Credit: Stuart Franklin/Magnum

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Postcolonial Studies  The postcolonies can be divided into settler, nonsettler, and mixed.  Settler postcolonies include countries that are dominated by European settlers with only sparse native populations (e.g., Australia)  Nonsettler postcolonies are characterized by large native populations and only a small number of Europeans (e.g., India).  Mixed postcolonies refer to countries with both sizable native and European populations (e.g., South Africa and Kenya)

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Development: Philosophy  An intervention philosophy is an ideological justification for interference in the lives of natives, based upon the assumption that one is in possession of a superior way of living or thinking.  British empire—white man's burden  French empire—mission civilisatrice  Economic development plans—industrialization, modernization, westernization, and individualism are desirable evolutionary advances that will bring long-term benefits to natives.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Development: Problems  Problems Associated with Narrowly Focused Intervention and Development.  Situations construed as problems resulting from an indigenous lifestyle may in fact be a result of the world system’s impact on that lifestyle.  The systemic effects of development projects may actually be harmful (e.g., tax and rent increases in response to raised income).  Narrowly focused experts are not as likely to be aware of the broad spectrum implications of development schemes.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill The Brazilian Sisal Scheme  In the 1950’s, Brazil’s government attempted to introduce sisal as a cash crop into the subsistence economy of the sertão.  Development increased dependence on the world economy, ruined the local subsistence economy, and worsened local health and income distribution. Brazilian sisal farmers. Photo Credit: Ricardo Funari/ Impact Visuals

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill The Brazilian Sisal Scheme Age of ChildMinimum Daily Requirement of Calories Actual Daily Allotment of Calories Percentage of Standard Body Weight 8 (male)2,1001, (female)1, (male)1, (male)1, Malnutrition among the children of a Brazillian Sisal residue man: Source: Gross and Underwood 1971, p. 733.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill The Greening of Java  Worldwide, the green revolution has increased food supplies and reduced food prices.  However, the emphasis on front capital and advanced technological and chemical farming allowed the bureaucratic and economic elites of Java to strengthen their positions at the expense of poorer farmers.  Ann Stoler’s analysis of the green revolution’s impact on Java suggested that it differentially affected such things as gender stratification, depending on class.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill The Greening of Java Map of Java.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Equity  A common stated goal of development projects is increased equity which means a reduction in poverty and a more even distribution of wealth.  This goal is frequently thwarted by local elites acting to preserve or enhance their positions.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill The Third World Talks Back  Applied anthropologists have been criticized for ethnocentrism in their own approaches to development (see the reference to Guillermo Batalla).  Too much focus on multiple and micro-causes while ignoring major social inequalities.  Early projects were too psychologically oriented.  Too much focus on technological diffusion as the primary source of change.  Other critics have pointed out associations between anthropologists and certain government agencies.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Strategies for Innovation  Kottak describes his comparative analysis of sixty-eight development projects, wherein he determined that culturally compatible economic development projects were twice as successfully financially as the incompatible ones.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Overinnovation  Overinnovation refers to development projects the require major changes on behalf of the target community  Projects that are guilty of overinnovation are generally not successful.  To avoid overinnovation, development projects need to be sensitive to the traditional culture and concerns of daily life in the target community.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Underdifferentiation  Underdifferentiation is the tendency to overlook cultural diversity and view less-developed countries as alike.  Many development projects incorrectly assume that the nuclear family is the basic unit of production and land ownership.  Many development projects also incorrectly assume that cooperatives based on models from the former Eastern bloc will be readily incorporated by rural communities.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Third World Models  The best models for economic development are to be found in the target communities.  Realistic development promotes change, not overinnovation, by preserving local systems while making them work better.  The Malagasy example shows attention paid to local social forms (descent organization) and environmental conditions (e.g., taking livestock from strains adapted to a similar environment).

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill This chapter discusses the results of contact between cultures of uneven influence. It focuses on how cultures can attempt to become dominant and how others might resist. It also examines the spread of American popular culture throughout the world as a case study. Cultural Exchange and Survival

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Contact and Domination  The increased contact among cultures has created increased possibilities for the domination of one group by another, through various means. Backed by military force, the Indonesian annexation of East Timor involved civil repression, persecution of Christians, and torture. Photo Credit: H. Schwarzbach/Still Pictures/Peter Arnold

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Development and Environmentalism  Currently, domination comes most frequently in the form of core-based multinational corporations causing economic change in Third World cultures.  It is noted that even well-intentioned interference (such as the environmentalist movement) may be treated as a form of cultural domination by subject populations.  Two sources of culture clash:  When development threatens indigenous peoples and their environments (e.g., Brazil and New Guinea).  When external relations threaten indigenous peoples (e.g., Madagascar, where sweeping international environmental regulations affect traditional subsistence lifeways).

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Religious Change  Indiana Jones is symbolic of western domination of all cultural aspects based upon specialized technological efficiency.  Religious homogenization is a technique frequently used by states trying to subdue groups encompassed by their borders.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Variation in Systems of Domination  Scott (1990) differentiates between public and hidden transcripts of culturally and politically oppressed peoples.  Public transcript refers to the open, public interactions between dominators and the oppressed.  Hidden transcript refers to the critique of power that goes on offstage, where the dominators cannot see it.  Gramsci’s (1971) notion of hegemony applies to a politically hierarchical system wherein in the dominant ideology of the elites has been internalized by members of the lower classes.  Bourdieu (1977) and Foucault (1979) argue that it is much easier to control people's minds than try to control their bodies.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Weapons of the Weak  As James Scott’s (1990) work on Malay peasants suggests, oppressed groups may use subtle, non-confrontational methods to resist various forms of domination.  Examples of antihegemonic discourse include rituals (e.g., Carnaval) and folk literature.  Resistance is more likely to be public when the oppressed come together in groups (hence the anti-assembly laws of the antebellum South).

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Cultural Imperialism  Cultural imperialism refers to the spread of one culture at the expense of others usually because of differential economic or political influence.  While mass media and related technology have contributed to the erosion of local cultures, they are increasingly being used as media for the outward diffusion of local cultures (e.g., television in Brazil).

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Cultural Imperialism Some French have protested against Euro Disneyland, which they see as American cultural imperialism. Photo Credit: Gamma Liaison

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Making and Remaking Culture  A text is defined as something that is creatively read, interpreted, and assigned meaning by each person who receives it.  Readers of a text all derive their own meanings and feelings which may be different from what the creators of the text intended.  The hegemonic reading refers to the reading or meaning that the creators of a text intended.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Popular Culture  According to Fiske (1989), each individual's use of popular culture is a creative act.  Popular culture can be used to express resistance.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Indigenizing Popular Culture  Cultural forms exported from one culture to another do not necessarily carry the same meaning from the former context to the latter context.  Aboriginal interpretations of the movie, Rambo, demonstrate that meaning can be produced from a text, not by a text.  Appadurai’s analysis of Philippine indigenization of some American music forms demonstrates the uniqueness of the indigenized form.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill A World System of Images  Mass media can spread and create national and ethnic identities.  Cross-cultural studies show that locally produced television shows are preferred to foreign imports.  Mass media plays an important role in maintaining ethnic and national identities among people who lead transnational lives.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Transnational Culture  As with mass media, the flow of capital has become decentralized, carrying with it the cultural influences of many different sources (e.g., the United States, Japan, Britain, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands).  Migrant labor also contributes to cultural diffusion. Maria Gomes on Brazil’s Tapajos River. Ms. Gomes is the Avon zone manager for 970 representatives in the Amazon rain forest. Photo Credit: Bob Crandall/Stock, Boston

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Postmodernism  Postmodernity describes our time and situation—today’s world in flux, these people on the move who have learned to manage multiple identities depending on place and context.  Postmodern refers the collapsing of old distinctions, rules, canons, and the like.  Postmodernism (derived from the architectural style) refers the theoretical assertion and acceptance of multiple forms of rightness, in contradistinction to modernism, which was based in the assumed supremacy of Western technology and values.  Globalization refers to the increasing connectedness of the world and its peoples.  With this connectedness, however, come new bases for identities (e.g., the Panindian identity growing among formerly disparate tribes).