Philosophical Foundations: What is Theory? Chapter Two Philosophical Foundations: What is Theory?

What is Communication? Definition: “The process through which messages, both intentional and unintentional, create meaning” (Metts, 2004, p. 5). Aspects: Dialectical nature Strategic and Consequential Perceptual consequences Behavioral consequences Relational consequences

What happens on a first date that will lead people to go on a second date? How can a student be successful? What leads one broadcasting agency to become successful in a market? What would make employees in a given organization more productive?

Theory is not behavior but an abstract representation of behavior What is Theory? Naïve or “lay” theories… There is no single “correct” definition of theory Definitions depend on assumptions and needs/goals of theorist But all agree that theory if fundamentally an abstraction Theory is not behavior but an abstract representation of behavior

Metaphors might help… Theories are a Reduction of details to patterns of associations A map A fishing net Spectacles

Difference between naïve theories and scientific theories Both lay theories and scientific theories function to organize information, describe phenomena, explain how communication works, and sometimes predict future occurrences. However, the important difference between lay theories and scientific theories is that scholars must be able to argue for the validity (truth or correctness) of their theories—they do this empirically, statistically, and/or logically

More Formal Definitions of Theory? Abstractions of the social world…that explain how, when, or why something happens, and exist at varying levels of generality (Miller, 2005) A description of concepts and specifications of the relationships between or among these concepts (Metts, 2004, p. 9)

What Theories Are Not Theories should be distinguished from hypotheses, typologies, taxonomies, and models. Hypothesis: A single statement about the relationship between two concepts Typology: Thematic categories (e.g., types of immediacy cues in the classroom or types of power) Taxonomy: Categories that are arranged hierarchically (types of animals) Models: usually concerned with processes; draw on typologies, taxonomies, and theories but describe without predicting or explaining. Ex.: the stages of relationship development and deterioration

What a theory is not A hypothesis A model A taxonomy A paradigm As depth of self-disclosure increases, relationships will grow Compliance Gaining Strategies REWARD APPEALS 1. Ingratiation 2. Promise 3. Debt 4. Esteem 5. Allurement PUNISHMENT APPEALS…etc.

What is this?

What is this?

(Contact  more Intergroup liking) What is this? The more people from groups that do not like each other have contact or talk with each other, the more they will grow to like each other. (Contact  more Intergroup liking)

What are the “parts” of a theory? Miller (2005): (1) description of phenomena, (2) relationships among these phenomena, (3) an underlying “storyline” that describes mechanisms at work, and (4) links between the abstract theory and observed phenomena

First—some review!

What are the “parts” of a theory? Metts (2004): (1) concepts (2) relationships among these concepts Propositions OR Other statements Propositions Temporal Correlational Causal

What does a theory do? (Metts, 2004, p. 14) Function What the Theory Does Organize Describe Explain Predict

Functions of theories To provide answers to interesting questions and/or solutions to important problems Theories address empirical problems in which something about the observed world is puzzling Theories address conceptual problems in which there are inconsistencies within a theory or with other theories Theories address practical problems of daily life

How are theories developed? Deductive approach to theory building: Abstract theories are developed early in process, then tested with empirical observations Inductive approach to theory building: Theoretical abstractions are grounded on extensive empirical observation

Actual practice

How can I tell if a theory is good? Metts Miller (Ch. 3; p. 44) Utility scientific & practical Scope Breadth (range of applicability) Parsimony Heurism Falsifiability Accuracy (entails falsifiability) Consistency (internal and external) Scope Simple (Parsimony) Fruitful (Heurism)

Paradigms > Theories The Paradox of Paradigms Kuhn on Paradigms Paradigms > Theories The Paradox of Paradigms Revolution versus accumulation

Paradigm shift as “Revolution” Normal Science Anomalies “Revolution” Crisis

Paradigms & Theories Paradigm Theory Type Theory

Metatheoretical Commitments Metatheory: “theory about theory” -- philosophical commitments Metatheoretical commitments define different approaches to theory development and research practices Three important aspects of metatheory are ontology, epistemology, and axiology

Ontology: The Nature of the Social World Realist stance: The social world is seen as consisting of real entities, independent of an individual’s perception Nominalist stance: The social world consists of names and labels we use to structure reality Social constructionist stance: We create the social world through symbols and interaction but it then becomes a “reality” constraining our behavior

These positions are on a continuum Realist Social Nominalist Constructionist Where do you fall on this continuum?

Epistemology: The creation and growth of knowledge (Table 2.1, p. 29) Objectivist stance: Causal explanations of the social world are developed through separation of knower and known and use of the scientific method (observation, search for regularities in behavior; generalizable knowledge) Subjectivist stance: Emergent and local understandings of the social world are developed through situated knowledge and reports of cultural insiders—researcher often becomes part of the group Intersubjectivist stance…?

Paradigms: Burrell & Morgan’s View Burrell and Morgan outline sociological theories, many of which also appear in communication research, on two continua. These are continua, rather than simple categories (though they do inform Miller’s discussion). The two are as follows: 1) Ontology/Epistemology (x-axis) 2) Axiology (y axis)

The Subjective-Objective Dimension Ontology/ Epistemology Subjective Objective (Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)

The Subjective-Objective Dimension The subjectivist approach to social science The objectivist approach to social science Nominalism Realism ontology Voluntarism Determinism human nature Anti-positivism Positivism epistemology Ideographic Nomothetic methodology (Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)

Scientific key words CauseEffect, influence, affect, lead to Factors, variables Predict Generalizable Analytic/reductionistic Quantitative (or qualitative)

Humanistic key words Contextual Interpretive Social construction Holistic Subjective Qualitative (usually)

Axiology: The role of values in theory development Most theorists now reject the idea that values can be totally eliminated from the research process Three positions are still evident: values only play a role in parts of the research process values permeate the research process values should direct the research process

Rephrased as questions: Can research be value-free? Should research be value-free? What do you think?

The Social Change/Status Quo Dimension Radical Social Change Axiology Regulation/Status Quo/Observation (Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)

Critical key words Power (struggles, etc.) Production and reproduction of social structures (like sexism, racism, classism) Empowerment, emancipation, resistance Social relations Ideology, hegemony Social change NOTE: May be qualitative or quantitative

A very important note: Critical theory, at least in communication, is not a question of method or ontological/epistemological assumptions, but of the purpose of research: Study 1: Does exposure to pornography lead men to see women in more objectified terms? Study 2: In what ways does the movie, Thelma and Louise provide new (and empowering) narratives for women’s relationships?

Three (socially constructed) paradigmsnin communication! RADICAL CHANGE CRITICAL: Social change SUBJECTIVE OBJECTIVE HUMANISTIC: Observe/ Interpret SCIENTIFIC: Predict/ Control (Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 22) REGULATION

Building Communication Theory Chapter 3

Two debates in “Communication” 1977: Laws, Rules Systems 1983: Scientific, Humanistic, Critical Today’s debates? 1989: Rethinking Communication What would you find at a communication conference today? What do you find in the School of Communication at Illinois State University?