The Presidency of Richard Nixon

The Republican Resurgence ■In 1968, Republicans benefited from the Vietnam disaster & division in the Democratic party: –Richard Nixon –Richard Nixon (R) ran as the one candidate who could restore order in America –Humphrey –Humphrey (D) was plagued by anti-war protesters –George Wallace –George Wallace (3 rd ) attacked blacks & liberals Nixon claimed to represent the “silent majority” who worked, paid taxes, & did not protest Nixon was the first candidate to appreciate the new importance of the “Sunbelt”: military bases, high-tech industries, retirement communities, anti-segregationists made the South more conservative than before

The End of an Era ■The presidential election of 1968 ended 30 years of: –Liberal reform –Liberal reform—Americans began to favor conservative political leaders –Activist foreign policy –Activist foreign policy—Vietnam proved that Containment failed to be applied to global scale ■A “silent majority” seemed fed up with protest, violence, long hair, drug use, & sexual promiscuity

Foreign Policy ■Nixon proved to be an effective foreign-policy president: –Most foreign policy decisions were made by Nixon & National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger détente ■Developed a plan for détente: –An “honorable” exit from Vietnam –Using U.S. trade to induce cooperation from the USSR –Improved relations with China Nixon hoped for a relaxing of Cold War tensions

Ending the Vietnam War Vietnamization ■Nixon’s plan for an “honorable peace” was “Vietnamization”: –Gradual withdraw of U.S. troops –Handing over the fighting to South Vietnamese troops ■Privately, Nixon hoped for a “knockout blow” & ordered U.S. troops into Cambodia & Laos ■The effect was the largest series of protests in American history These bombings were conducted without the consent or approval of Congress War Powers Act In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Act requiring Congress’ approval to send U.S. forces into combat for more than 90 days & must inform Congress within 48 hours as to the reasons for military intervention Protests at Kent State & Jackson State resulted in bloody confrontations between students & National Guard

Kent State, Ohio student protests Kent State student protest, 1970

Ending the Vietnam War ■In January 1973, the U.S. & North Vietnam agreed to a cease fire –By March 1973, U.S. troops were withdrawn –By 1975, the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon fell & Vietnam became unified under the Communist government –Vietnam proved Containment could not be sustained

In Search of Détente ■In Feb 1972, Nixon became 1 st U.S. president to visit & recognize the People’s Republic of China: –These improved Sino-American relations helped eased Cold War tensions & forced the USSR to consider diplomacy with the U.S. –Presented the U.S. with its 1 st economic access to China “Ping-pong diplomacy”

In Search of Détente ■Nixon traveled to Moscow to meet with Soviet leader Brezhnev: –The U.S. agreed to sell the USSR $1 billion worth of grain Strategic Arms Limitation Talks –USSR agreed to Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), the 1 st Cold War nuclear arms treaty ■Kissinger negotiated an end to the Yom Kippur War in 1973 between Israel & Egypt

Nixon’s Covert Operations covert ■Despite Nixon’s public détente with the USSR & China, most foreign policy was covert: –CIA funded the leaders of brutal gov’ts in Iran, South Africa, the Philippines, & Nicaragua –CIA assassinated Chilean president Salvador Allende

Nixon’s Domestic Policy ■Nixon entered office as a moderate who kept LBJ’s Great Society in place –But, Nixon shifted responsibility for social problems to state & local governments –Nixon reshaped the Supreme Court along conservative lines when 4 justices retired Replaced retiring chief justice Earl Warren with Warren Burger Nominated Harry Blackmun, Lewis Powell, & William Rehnquist

Nixon’s Domestic Policy ■Nixon oversaw the creation of: –Environmental Protection Agency –Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) –A failed plan to replace welfare benefits with a minimum income –Quotas for minority construction firms for gov’t projects –Ended the gold standard in 1971

Nixonomics ■The economy was a challenge: –Nixon inherited inflation & deficit spending from the Vietnam War –Nixon’s decrease in government spending & increase in interest rates led to the 1 st American recession since 1958 ■In 1971, Nixon responded with a 90-day freeze on wages & prices & imposed a 10% tax on imports Democrats coined “Nixonomics” to describe Nixon’s failed plan This “Great Nixon Turnaround” ended the recession

The Election of 1972 ■In 1972, Nixon ran for re-election –Democrat George McGovern was labeled an “outsider” who supported “acid, abortion, & amnesty” –Nixon won in the 4 th largest margin of victory in history ■But…the Watergate scandal ended the Nixon presidency The 1972 election saw a shift in voting patterns: Only blacks, Jews, & the poor voted overwhelmingly Democratic while the GOP continued its dominance in the Sunbelt

Watergate: A Crisis of Democracy

The Watergate Scandal ■In 1972, a break-in at Democratic candidate George McGovern’s headquarters revealed a well- funded plan of espionage & sabotage by the Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP) ■The Watergate cover-up led to Nixon’s resignation & a changed American perception of the gov’t & the role of the media

Bob Woodward & Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post broke the Watergate story Their investigation revealed…

The Burglars

Formation of the “Plumbers”

Daniel Ellsberg’s Pentagon Papers

The Watergate Scandal ■The Watergate scandal began to unravel in 1973: –The discovery that Nixon recorded conversations proved most damning –The Supreme Court ordered Nixon to turn over all tapes to a Senate investigative committee –The House brought 3 articles of impeachment against president Obstruction of justice Abuse of powerContempt of Congress Due largely to Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward & Carl Bernstein

Stonewalling

The Watergate Scandal ■Impact of the Watergate scandal: –26 members of Nixon’s administration were sent to jail –The press began to be seen as a “watchdog” over the gov’t –An independent judiciary branch was vital to protect individual freedom & national interests –Power shifted from the president to Congress Teddy Roosevelt began the trend of a stronger president than Congress; a trend that continued throughout the 20 th century until Nixon After Nixon, Congress enacted campaign finance reform, made it easier for the Justice Dept to investigate the Executive Branch, took back some control of the federal budget, passed the Freedom of Information Act, & reigned in CIA covert operations

Conclusions: Politics After Watergate ■The Watergate scandal eroded public trust in their own gov’t ■The growing tension between president & Congress prevented strong, effective leadership from meeting foreign & domestic problems in the 1970s ■The discontent of the 1960s & 1970s revealed an America at war with itself

The 1970s: A Crisis in Confidence ■The “Overextended Society” of the 1970s was defined by: –Low economic growth, high prices, & rising unemployment –Distrust of the government due to the Watergate scandal –“Passionless presidents” who failed to project clear leadership –An end of Nixon-era détente & resumption of Cold War rivalries The economy & mood in America were so bad in the 1970s that the decade was called the “Overextended Society” In the 1950s, the economy was so good that the decade was referred to as the “Affluent Society” In the 1920s, the economy was so good that the decade was referred to as the “Roaring 20s”

The U.S. Economy in the 1970s

Energy and the Economy ■In the 1970s, 2 great oil shocks hurt the U.S. economy: –In 1973, the Arab members of OPEC initiated a 5% cut on production & an embargo against the U.S. –The Iranian Revolution in 1979 cut off oil & led to another gas- shortage & soaring interest rates To punish Israel’s allies when Egypt & Syria attacked against Israel The fuel shortage led to a 200% increase in the price of gas & home heating Led to worst recession since Depression

The Search for an Energy Policy ■These oil shocks forced the U.S. to realize its dependency on other nations for oil & led to action: –Nixon formed the EPA to oversee industry’s environmental impact –The new Dept of Energy (1977) emphasized conservation & domestic energy production –Still…U.S. oil imports rose 50% from 1973 to 1979 Mandated gas mileage requirements, speed limits, & price controls on domestic oil Nuclear plants & Alaskan oil pipeline

A Troubled American Economy ■The 1970s economy grew stagnant: –Unemployment grew to 9% –Heavy industry jobs fell due to outsourcing & foreign competition ■1970s experienced huge inflation: –Due to Vietnam deficit spending, global food shortage, oil shocks –Massive price increases led to a 5.5% decrease in “real income” for average Americans Workers’ wages did not keep up with rising prices Milk & hamburger prices rose 200% Bread prices rose 400%Car prices rose 72% A stagnant economy High inflation STAGFLATION Neither Ford nor Carter could stop “stagflation;” Carter’s policies actually drove interest rates up as high as 20%

The “Lean Years” The “Lean Years” The Presidencies of Ford & Carter

The Ford Administration ■Gerald Ford failed to restore public confidence after Watergate: –Ford pardoned Nixon for any crimes he may have committed –He revealed a number of past CIA assassination attempts & appointed George Bush to reorganize the CIA –Vetoed 39 Great Society-style bills initiated by Congress

The 1976 Campaign ■In 1976, dark-horse Jimmy Carter won the Democratic nomination & campaigned as an outsider, an honest man, with fresh leadership ■Carter won a narrow victory due to social class & racial factors: –Affluent, well-educated, suburban voters chose Ford –Socially & economically disadvantaged voted for Carter

Ford’s foreign policy blunder during the TV debates in 1976: “There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe”

Disenchantment with Carter ■Carter entered office with no clear political philosophy or vision: –Deregulated the airline industry which lowered prices –But…his attempts to reform welfare & Social Security failed –He had no remedy for soaring inflation, interest rates, & bank failures that hurt the economy In 1979, Carter gave the “national malaise” speech in which he discussed the importance of conserving energy but seemed to blame Americans for creating a “crisis in confidence”

Carter’s Human Rights Foreign Policy

A Declining Superpower ■America’s international dominance declined sharply in 1970s due to: –Americans’ increasing desires to avoid “another Vietnam” –The War Powers Act forced the president to consult with Congress before sending troops –The escalating military costs & deficit spending made sustaining the Cold War impossible

Foreign Policy & Human Rights ■Carter focused his foreign policy on a commitment to human rights: –Spoke out against repressive regimes in Latin America & apartheid in South Africa –Reformed the CIA to operate “within the law” (but only briefly) –Negotiated the return of the Panama Canal to Panamanians

Foreign Policy & Human Rights ■In Nov 1977, Egyptian leader Sadat made an appeal with Israel to settle the October War of 1973 ■Carter invited Egyptian leader Sadat & Israeli leader Begin to the U.S. to negotiate terms Camp David accords ■The Camp David accords in 1979 led to a peace treaty between Egypt & Israel, but alienated other Arab nations

Celebrating the Camp David Accords: Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter, & Anwar Sadat

The Cold War Resumes ■During the Carter years, the Cold War rivalry between the U.S. & USSR grew due to: –A new arms race as the U.S. adopted new MX missiles & Trident submarines –SALT II failed to make lasting arms reduction –Increased U.S.-Sino relations put the USSR on the defensive

The Cold War Resumes ■Détente ended when the USSR invaded Afghanistan in 1979 ■The U.S. interpreted the attack as a move to take the Middle East & responded with: –Economic embargo of the USSR –Boycott of the Moscow Olympics –Aid to the Afghani resistance Carter hoped to limit nuclear arms & advance human rights, but found himself in a heightened Cold War

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 1979

The Iranian Hostage Crisis ■The Camp David victory was offset by the 1979 Iranian hostage crisis: –Exiled Islamic fundamentalist Ayatollah Khomeini led a coup against U.S.-backed the shah –When Carter allowed the shah to enter the U.S. for medical aid, irate mobs in Tehran took 52 hostages from the U.S. embassy

Quest for Peace in the Middle East ■Carter’s attempts at diplomatic, military, & economic threats failed to bring a return of the hostages –In 1980, Carter approved a rescue mission that was aborted after 2 helicopters crashed –The perceived blunders & inability of Carter to end the hostage crisis hurt Carter in his re-election bid in 1980

Conclusions Conclusions: A Failed Presidency

A Failed Presidency ■Carter’s failures with inflation, Iran, & Afghanistan overshadowed his foreign policy victories with the Panama Canal & the Middle East ■The failures of Johnson, Nixon, Ford, & Carter led to a desire among Americans for a strong leader who could face both domestic & foreign challenges Carter’s 1980 approval rating was 23%