“Men are only as good as their technical development allows them to be” - George Orwell CP551 Sustainable Development 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini

Module 6: Energy and Transport for economic and human development, and their impact on Sustainable Development. 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini

Global energy consumption in 2004 ≈ 15 TW = 15 x W (86.5% of which comes from burning of fossil fuels) 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Global population in 2004 ≈ 6.37 billion Global energy consumption per person in 2004 ≈ 15 x W / 6.37 x 10 9 ≈ 2.4 kW

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini

Non-renewables Renewables ??? Energy Options Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal) Nuclear (Uranium) power Hydropower Solar energy Wind energy Geothermal energy Ocean (wave, tidal and ocean thermal) energy Biomass energy Biofuels (bioethanol or biodiesel) energy Hydrogen (fuel-cell) economy

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Renewable energy are flows of energy that are regenerative or virtually inexhaustible. - Dr. Raymond Wright Sustainable energy is energy which is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment. Source:

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable Energy Options? Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal) Nuclear (Uranium) power Hydropower Solar energy Wind energy Geothermal energy Ocean (wave, tidal and ocean thermal) energy Biomass energy Biofuels (bioethanol or biodiesel) energy Hydrogen (fuel-cell) economy Energy Options

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Non-sustainables Are these sustainable? ????? Sustainable Energy Options? Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal) Nuclear (Uranium) power Hydropower Solar energy Wind energy Geothermal energy Ocean (wave, tidal and ocean thermal) energy Biomass energy Biofuels (bioethanol or biodiesel) energy Hydrogen (fuel-cell) economy

Hydropower - putting barriers in the natural flow of a river prevents fish from migration, alters ecosystems, and threatens the livelihoods of local communities - the world's 52,000 largest dams release 104 million metric tons of methane annually, which is 4% of the total warming impact of human activities - hydropower is not renewable, because reservoirs fill up with sediment and cost billions to dredge - catastrophic failure (If dam breaks it would be a disaster and would kill many people) - loss of land as well as flooding of areas such as natural habitats and existing settlements 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable energy is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment.

Hydropower The twin Aswan Dams of Nile river have plugged the flooding of the river, and much of the flood and its load of rich fertilizing silt are now deposited in reservoirs instead of the delta, thus heavily polluting the river and causing decline in soil fertility in the Nile Delta. 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable energy is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment. The Three Gorges Dam project in China will flood a huge area, evacuate over a million people, wash away 13 major cities, and submerge thousands of archeological and cultural sites.

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Non-sustainables Are these sustainable? ????? Sustainable Energy Options? Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal) Nuclear (Uranium) power Hydropower Solar energy Wind energy Geothermal energy Ocean (wave, tidal and ocean thermal) energy Biomass energy Biofuels (bioethanol or biodiesel) energy Hydrogen (fuel-cell) economy

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Source: Available Energy in 2004 absorbed by land and ocean

Solar Energy 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable energy is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment. Solar panels heat up the water and they don’t generate electricity

Solar Energy Photovoltaic (PV) cell turn light into electricity Total of installed PV is around 6,000 MWp in Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable energy is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment. Solar irradiance PV module Charge controller DC loads AC loads Inverter Battery Stand Alone System

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini CIS Tower, Manchester, England £5.5m solar project - weatherproof cladding is provided by replacing the mosaic tiles around the tower by PV cells (alive & dummy cells). - dummy cells were used to optimise the system’s electircal generation and minimise costs. - generates total electricity for 61 average three-bed houses each year Source:

Solar Energy 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable energy is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment. Inorganic Solar Cells Bulk Thin-film GermaniumSilicon Mono-crystalline Poly-crystalline Ribbon Silicon Amorphous Silicon Nonocrystalline Silicon 3 rd Generation Materials CIS CIGS CdTe GaAs Light absorbing dyes

Solar Energy - CdTe (cadmium telluride) is easier to deposit and more suitable for large-scale production. Cd is however toxic. - Processing silica (SiO2) to produce silicon is a very high energy process, and it takes over two years for a conventional solar cell to generate as much energy as was used to make the silicon it contains. - Silicon is produced by reacting carbon (charcoal) and silica at a temperature around 1700 deg C. - And, 1.5 tonnes of CO 2 is emitted for each tonne of silicon (about 98% pure) produced. - PV cells complete with biological plants. 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable energy is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment.

Solar Energy - Germanium is an “un-substitutable” industrial mineral. - 75% of germanium is used in optical fibre systems, infrared optics, solar electrical applications, and other speciality glass uses. - Germanium gives these glasses their desired optical properties. - Germanium use will likely increase with solar-electric power becomes widely available and as optic cables continue to replace traditional copper wire. 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable energy is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment. Source: Graedel, T.E. and Klee, R.J., Getting serious about sustainability, Env. Sci. & Tech. 36(4): 523-9

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Calculation of United States’ Sustainable Limiting Rate of Germanium Consumption: Step 1: Virgin material supply limit The reserve base for germanium in 1999 = 500 Mg So the virgin material supply limit over the next 50 years = 500 Mg / 50 years = 10 Mg/yr Source: Graedel, T.E. and Klee, R.J., Getting serious about sustainability, Env. Sci. & Tech. 36(4): 523-9

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Calculation of United States’ Sustainable Limiting Rate of Germanium Consumption: Step 2: Allocation of virgin material Average U.S. population over the next 50 years = 340 million Equal allocation of germanium among the average U.S. population gives (10 Mg/yr) / 340 million = 29 mg / (person.yr) Source: Graedel, T.E. and Klee, R.J., Getting serious about sustainability, Env. Sci. & Tech. 36(4): 523-9

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Calculation of United States’ Sustainable Limiting Rate of Germanium Consumption: Step 3: Regional “re-captureable” resource base Worldwide germanium production from recycled material ≈ 25% of the total germanium consumed Equal allocation of virgin germanium among the average U.S. population therefore becomes 1.25*29 mg / (person.yr) = 36 mg / (person.yr) The sustainable limiting rate of germanium consumption in U.S. is thus 36 mg / (person.yr) Source: Graedel, T.E. and Klee, R.J., Getting serious about sustainability, Env. Sci. & Tech. 36(4): 523-9

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Calculation of United States’ Sustainable Limiting Rate of Germanium Consumption: Step 4: Current consumption rate vs. sustainable limiting rate Germanium consumption in U.S. in 1999 = 28 Mg Population in U.S. in 1999 = 275 million So, germanium consumption rate in U.S. in 1999 = 28 Mg / 275 million = 102 mg / (person.yr) which is about 2.8 times the sustainable limiting rate of germanium consumption in U.S. Source: Graedel, T.E. and Klee, R.J., Getting serious about sustainability, Env. Sci. & Tech. 36(4): 523-9

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Non-sustainables Are these sustainable? ????? Sustainable Energy Options? Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal) Nuclear (Uranium) power Hydropower Solar energy Wind energy Geothermal energy Ocean (wave, tidal and ocean thermal) energy Biomass energy Biofuels (bioethanol or biodiesel) energy Hydrogen (fuel-cell) economy

Hydrogen Energy (fuel cell) How does a fuel cell works? Go to 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable energy is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment.

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini

Hydrogen Energy (fuel cell) - Power is produced by an electrochemical process not by combustion - Noiseless operation - 50% hydrogen energy content to electrical energy conversion efficiency - Multi-fuel (hydrocarbon and alcohols) capability - Durability, reliability, scalability and ease of maintenance - Only water and heat is emitted from a fuel cell (water is in fact a greenhouse gas) 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable energy is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment.

Hydrogen Energy (fuel cell) - The electrodes are composed of platinum particles uniformly supported on carbon particles. The platinum acts as a catalyst. - Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (Proton Exchange Membrane) is a thin, solid, organic compound. - Hydrogen for the fuel cell is produced from fossil fuel at present (so CO 2 emissions are part of hydrogen energy). - Power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen - Hydrogen transportation and refuelling 15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Sustainable energy is replenishable within a human lifetime and causes no long-term damages to the environment.

15 Feb 2008 R. Shanthini Non-sustainables Are these sustainable? ????? Sustainable Energy Options? Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal) Nuclear (Uranium) power Hydropower Solar energy Wind energy Geothermal energy Ocean (wave, tidal and ocean thermal) energy Biomass energy Biofuels (bioethanol or biodiesel) energy Hydrogen (fuel-cell) economy