Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach Chapter 8

The Passenger Pigeon: Gone Forever Once most common bird in N. America - Once most common bird in N. America - Extinct in 1914 Extinct in 1914 Humans were responsible (huge flocks, narrow colonies = easy to kill- stool pigeons) Humans were responsible (huge flocks, narrow colonies = easy to kill- stool pigeons) Why they were hunted (food, feathers, fertilizer) Why they were hunted (food, feathers, fertilizer) Extinction Extinction

Types of Species Extinction Local extinction- like it sounds Local extinction- like it sounds Ecological extinction - too few to play ecological role Ecological extinction - too few to play ecological role Biological extinction - all gone everywhere Biological extinction - all gone everywhere

Fig. 8-2, p. 154 Passenger pigeon Great aukDodoDusky seaside sparrow Aepyornis (Madagascar) Some Prematurely Extinct Species

Endangered and Threatened Species Endangered species could soon become extinct over some or all of its range Endangered species could soon become extinct over some or all of its range Threatened species still abundant, but likely to become endangered Threatened species still abundant, but likely to become endangered Fig. 8-3, p. 156

Florida manatee Northern spotted owl (threatened) Gray wolfFlorida panther Bannerman's turaco (Africa) Devil's hole pupfish Snow leopard (Central Asia) Black-footed ferret Symphonia (Madagascar) Utah prairie dog (threatened) Ghost bat (Australia) California condorBlack lace cactus Black rhinoceros (Africa) Oahu tree snail More Endangered and Threatened Species

CharacteristicExamples Low reproductive rate (K-strategist) Specialized niche Narrow distribution Feeds at high trophic level Fixed migratory patterns Rare Commercially valuable Large territories Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite Many island species, elephant seal, desert pupfish Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtles Many island species, African violet, some orchids Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther Characteristics of Extinction-Prone Species “The first animal species to go are the big, the slow, the tasty and those with valuable parts such as tusks and skins.” E.O.Wilson Fig. 8-4, p. 157

Fig. 8-5, p. 157 Fish Mammals Reptiles Plants Birds 34% (51% of freshwater species) 24% 20% 14% 12% Percentages of Various Types of Organisms Threatened with Extinction by Human Activities

Problems Estimating Extinction Rates Extinction not easily documented over time Extinction not easily documented over time Many species remain unidentified Many species remain unidentified Little is known about most identified species Little is known about most identified species

Estimating Extinction Rates Estimates from records and fossils Estimates from records and fossils Species-area relationship : on average, a 90% habitat loss causes the extinction of 50% of the species living in that habitat Species-area relationship : on average, a 90% habitat loss causes the extinction of 50% of the species living in that habitat Models to estimate risks of extinction for a particular species Models to estimate risks of extinction for a particular species Estimates of extinction rates can vary depending on available data and what assumptions are used Estimates of extinction rates can vary depending on available data and what assumptions are used

Human Impacts on Extinction Rates Humans have greatly accelerated extinction rates (1, ,000x) Humans have greatly accelerated extinction rates (1, ,000x) Conservative estimates of 0.1% to 1% per year. Conservative estimates of 0.1% to 1% per year. Due to human population increases Due to human population increases Extinction rates higher in biodiversity “hot spots” Extinction rates higher in biodiversity “hot spots” Speciation crisis (humans limiting long-term recovery of biodiversity via impacts on ecosystems, colonization sites for emergence of new species) Speciation crisis (humans limiting long-term recovery of biodiversity via impacts on ecosystems, colonization sites for emergence of new species) Inadequate estimations of extinction rates Inadequate estimations of extinction rates Precautionary strategy Precautionary strategy

Importance of Wild Species May take nature 5 million years to replace the species that may be lost in the 21st century May take nature 5 million years to replace the species that may be lost in the 21st century Instrumental value - ecological services, food, fuel, lumber, paper, medicine Instrumental value - ecological services, food, fuel, lumber, paper, medicine Genetic information- better ability to adapt to changing enviro. conditions Genetic information- better ability to adapt to changing enviro. conditions Recreational pleasure and ecotourism - lion living in Kenya generates > $.5 million over 7 years elephant worth about $1 million over 60 yrs Recreational pleasure and ecotourism - lion living in Kenya generates > $.5 million over 7 years elephant worth about $1 million over 60 yrs Intrinsic or existence value - Do species have an inherent right to exist? Intrinsic or existence value - Do species have an inherent right to exist? Even small organisms can be important Even small organisms can be important

Fig. 8-7, p. 158 Nature’s Pharmacy 9 of 10 leading Rx drugs originated from wild species < 1% of flowering plants in tropical forests studied for medicinal properties

Causes of Premature Extinction “HIPPCO” “HIPPCO” Habitat destruction and fragmentation Habitat destruction and fragmentation Invasive (alien) species Invasive (alien) species Population growth (humans) Population growth (humans) Pollution Pollution Climate Change Climate Change Overharvesting Overharvesting

Extinction Threats from Habitat Loss and Degradation Importance of habitats Importance of habitats Deforestation- particularly tropical forests Deforestation- particularly tropical forests Destruction of wetlands and coral reefs Destruction of wetlands and coral reefs Endemic species- found nowhere else on earth Endemic species- found nowhere else on earth “Habitat islands”- surrounded by different habitat “Habitat islands”- surrounded by different habitat Habitat fragmentation - continuous area divided into small, scattered patches Habitat fragmentation - continuous area divided into small, scattered patches “Message” from the birds - 70% are declining, 1/6 threatened with extinction Birds are indicator species “Message” from the birds - 70% are declining, 1/6 threatened with extinction Birds are indicator species

Florida scrub jay Sprague’s pipitBichnell’s thrushBlacked-capped vireoGolden-cheeked warbler Cerulean warbler California gnatcatcher Kirtland’s warbler Henslow’s sparrowBachman’s warbler Threatened Species of U.S. Songbirds

See Fig. 8-9, p. 161 Asian or Indian Elephant Reduced Ranges Former range Range today (34,000–54,000 left) Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today (about 2,300 left)

Purple looselifeEuropean starlingAfrican honeybee (“Killer bee”) NutriaSalt cedar (Tamarisk) Marine toadWater hyacinthJapanese beetleHydrillaEuropean wild boar (Feral pig) Fig. 8-10, p. 163 Deliberately Introduced Species

Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire antEurasian muffleBrown tree snakeCommon pigeon (Rock dove) Formosan termiteZebra musselAsian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquitoGypsy moth larvae Fig. 8-10, p. 163 Accidentally Introduced Species

Kudzu Fig. 8-11, p. 164

Fire Ant Invasion Currently as far north as CA and the Bay Area

Reducing Threats from Nonnative Species Cost U.S. Taxpayers $137 billion /yr Cost U.S. Taxpayers $137 billion /yr Threaten 1/2 critical species in US (95% in Hawaii) Threaten 1/2 critical species in US (95% in Hawaii) Prevention is best Prevention is best Identify the characteristics of nonnative species Identify the characteristics of nonnative species Identify vulnerable ecosystems Identify vulnerable ecosystems Thoroughly inspect imports Thoroughly inspect imports Establish appropriate international laws Establish appropriate international laws Discharge of ballast waters from ships Discharge of ballast waters from ships

Fig. 8-13, p. 165 Characteristics of Successful Invader Species High reproductive rate, short generation time (r-selected species) Pioneer species Long lived High dispersal rate Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil Generalists High genetic variability Characteristics of Ecosystems Vulnerable to Invader Species Similar climate to habitat of invader Absence of predators on invading species Early successional systems Low diversity of native species Absence of fire Disturbed by human activities Characteristics of Successful Invader Species and Vulnerable Ecosystems

Extinction Threats from Poaching Profits of poaching Mt. gorilla = $150K; panda pelt = $100K; chimp = $50K; rhino horn = $28k /Kg (most live animals die in transit) Profits of poaching Mt. gorilla = $150K; panda pelt = $100K; chimp = $50K; rhino horn = $28k /Kg (most live animals die in transit) Causes of poaching: food, fur, pets, traditional medicines, trophies, eliminating pests, etc. Causes of poaching: food, fur, pets, traditional medicines, trophies, eliminating pests, etc. Bushmeat Bushmeat Illegal pets and decorative plants orchids can fetch up to $5K; saguaro cactus $15K > 60 bird species are endangered or threatened due to wild bird trade keeping a bird indoors for more than 10 yrs doubles chances of getting lung cancer Irony of collecting exotics Illegal pets and decorative plants orchids can fetch up to $5K; saguaro cactus $15K > 60 bird species are endangered or threatened due to wild bird trade keeping a bird indoors for more than 10 yrs doubles chances of getting lung cancer Irony of collecting exotics Attempts to control poaching Attempts to control poaching

Bushmeat Fig. 8-17, p. 169

Extinction Threats from Climate Change and Pollution Greenhouse effect Greenhouse effect Pesticide threats- decline in honeybees, birds & fish Pesticide threats- decline in honeybees, birds & fish DDT biomagnification (bioaccumulation) DDT biomagnification (bioaccumulation)

Fig. 8-15, p. 166 DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys) 25 ppm DDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppm DDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppm DDT in water ppm, or 3 ppt DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm Biomagnification of DDT Fat soluble chemicals increase in concentration at higher levels of food web

Protecting Wild Species International Treaties Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) signed by 166 countries- lists 900 endangered species that cannot be commercially traded restricts international trade of 29,000 threatened species limited impact due to spotty enforcement, ability for countries to except themselves Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) legally binds governments to reverse decline of biodiversity ratified by 190 countries (not USA)- No severe penalties

Protecting Wild Species - U.S. Federal Laws Important on APES Exam Lacey Act (1900) - prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals or parts across state borders w/out federal permit. Endangered Species Act (ESA- 1973)- one of world’s toughest & controversial enviro laws goal is to identify & protect endangered species in USA & abroad NMFS / USFWS responsible for identifying and listing endangered & threatened species illegal for Americans to buy any product made from protected species - species cannot be killed, collected or injured in US $100k fines and 1 year prison terms for offenses protection extended to threatened & endangered foreign species In 2005 there were1,260 protected species (many critical species not yet listed) Establishing critical habitats- ESA requries protection of critical habitat for recovery of listed species. Due to lack of funds, only 33% of listed species have critical habitat established Since 2001, gov has stopped listing new species & designating critical habitats unless mandated by court order

Endangered Species Act (continued) Habitat conservation plans amendment to ESA allows landowners, developers or loggers to destroy critical habitat if they take steps to protect members of species (set asides, paying to relocate, or buying suitable habitat elsewhere criticized as loophole - many plans approved without scientific evaluation ESA and commercial shipping - all commercial wildlife shipments must leave or enter US via one of nine designated ports 60 USFWS inspectors examine only 25% of 90,000 yearly shipments violators often not prosecuted and pay only small fine

Confiscated Products From Endangered Species Due to sparse $$ and inspectors, < 10% of illegal wildlife trade in US is discovered

Concentration of rare species LowModerateHigh Top Six Hot Spots 1 Hawaii 2 San Francisco Bay area 3 Southern Appalachians 4 Death Valley 5 Southern California 6 Florida Panhandle Biodiversity Hot Spots in the US

Protecting Marine Species Role of the Endangered Species Act Role of the Endangered Species Act Threats from litter - plastic threatens millions of marine species Threats from litter - plastic threatens millions of marine species “Pacific Garbage Dump” - Nightline Video - click here “Pacific Garbage Dump” - Nightline Video - click here Threatened sea mammals- whales, seals, sea lions Threatened sea mammals- whales, seals, sea lions Threatened sea turtles - World’s 8 major sea turtle species are endangered or threatened- Poaching and threats from fishing nets Threatened sea turtles - World’s 8 major sea turtle species are endangered or threatened- Poaching and threats from fishing nets Need more knowledge of marine biodiversity Need more knowledge of marine biodiversity Difficulty enforcing international treaties Difficulty enforcing international treaties

Endangered Sea Turtles World’s 8 major sea turtle species are endangered or threatened-

What Can You Do? Protecting Species Do not buy furs, ivory products, and other materials made from endangered or threatened animal species. Do not buy wood and paper products produced by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the tropics. Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, and other animals that are taken from the wild. Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants that are taken from the wild. Fig. 8-20, p. 174 What Can We Do to Protect Species?