The Scientific Revolution Science from Copernicus to Newton

Origins of the New Science Basis of the Scientific Revolution: 1. Conflicting classical sources (Aristotle, Ptolemy, Galen) 2. Examination / focus of Renaissance artists on nature 3. Development of technical skills 4. Use of mathematics to understand nature

Forces influencing science 1. Aristotelian Philosophy: provided a starting point –Matter made of four elements (earth, wind, water and fire) 2. Neo-Platonism: revival of Platonic philosophy –emphasis on mathematics 3. Mystical / alchemy: metaphysical (spiritual / moral) explanation of the world –Paracelsus: doctor / alchemist who believed that disease could be diagnosed and treated with ingested medicine 4. Natural Philosophy: attempt to explain the natural world

Characteristics of the Scientific Revolution Europeans began to challenge classical thought Materialistic: all matter made up of the same material & subject to the same laws Mathematical: use calculation to replace common sense –measurable, repeatable phenomena –People began to understand the mathematical nature of the universe Science boils down to the mathematical relationship Development of scientific institutions began; Labs, universities, journals, language, careers

Nicolaus Copernicus ( ) Polish monk, mathematican and astronomer. Presented first serious challenge to Ptolemy’s geocentric universe. In On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres he proposed heliocentric theory Avoided persecution through death

Tycho Brahe ( ) Built Europe’s first modern astronomical laboratory Discovered a supernova and comet. Believed all other planets revolved around the sun while the earth remained stationary.

Johannes Kepler ( ) Supported Heliocentric and states that revolutions are elliptical (German) –Developed a mathematical formula as proof –Developed three laws of planetary motion

Laws of Planetary Motion 1. All planets revolve around he sun in elliptical orbits. 2. The velocity of the planet varies according to its distance from the sun (closer = faster, further = slower) 3. set out mathematical formula to explain the physical relationship among the moving planets and the sun.

Galileo Galilei ( ) Asserted that planets are made of roughly same material as the Earth Wrote The Starry Messenger (1610) A Dialog Between the Two Great Systems of the World (1632) Challenged biblical view of the heavens

Galileo and the Church In 1632, Brought before the Roman Inquisition for teaching “Copernicanism” Church was prepared to tolerate hypothesis (not fact). Galileo forced to recant. Tried and found guilty of heresy, house arrest; Dialogue was placed on the Index of Forbidden Books

Isaac Newton ( ) Used experimental philosophy = physics Start with the natural world and then try to explain it Natural philosophy began with an idea and applied it to nature Used math to create models based on nature - used formulas Expressed observations in numeric language Math was a precise language that allowed for replication, collaboration and the creation of new knowledge Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1687)

Laws of Universal Gravitation 1. Law of motion - every object is at rest or motion and continues until some force affects the object 2. Rate of change of motion is in proportion to the force which affects the object 3. To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction

Discoveries in Anatomy Andreas Vesalius: –Galen (Classical source) established classical beliefs regarding anatomy and physiology. More accurate anatomical sketches William Harvey: –Blood circulates throughout the body in a continuous loop –Previously believed that there were two circulation systems –Heart as a pump

Discoveries in Chemistry Robert Boyle –supported atomic view of matter - chemistry –Boyle's Law: relationship between pressure and gas –Promoted the use to experimental technology

The Scientific Method Use of observation and data collection to prove or disprove a hypothesis had been used by various researchers for centuries (especially the Arabs) Scientists such as Copernicus and Galileo revive the use of these techniques in Europe. Later scientists build upon their methods toward a more codified scientific method.

Francis Bacon Challenged Aristotle’s reliance on deductive reasoning. codification of the Scientific Method (inductive empirical experimentalism) The Advancement of Learning (1605)

Rene Descartes Jesuit education; Schooled in Aristotelian philosophy Disagreed with the basis of Aristotelian philosophy Embraced Skepticism (people who use doubt as the basis of knowledge) Rejected absolute construct of knowledge, knowledge based on probability Constructed knowledge based on doubt, but reaffirmed the value of deductive reasoning. Used "proofs" to support philosophical learning Could only accept that which you could prove – "I think, therefore I am"

Rene Descartes Cartesian dualism: Mind and matter are separate, so to is the physical world from intellectual constructs (basis for science) –Example: Ontological proof of god: –One could only accept God if you could prove it exists –Descartes knew that he was not perfect –Only a perfect individual could place that concept in ones mind –Therefore perfection must exist –What is perfection, existence without limits = God –proof for God based upon doubt, if you doubt it then it must exist at some level Contrast it to Aristotelian proof: Causality believed that humans could more completely understand their world by using abstract principles Believed in that nature operated based on a Mechanical set of laws

Blaise Pascal Scientist who studied probability and mathematics. He had concerns about science’s influence on faith. Wrote Pensees, reflections on faith and science.

Scientific Societies As the importance of science grew, scientific societies formed to promote research and share knowledge. Many had gov’t connections and support: reflecting the growing influence of central governments, Rome (1603), Florence (1657), England (Royal Society, 1662), France (French Academy, 1666), Prussia (Berlin Academy, 1701)