Chapter Five: Nonexperimental Methods II: Ex Post Facto Studies, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sampling and Basic Research Strategies

Ex Post Facto Studies

Ex Post Facto Studies Ex post facto – is a Latin phrase meaning “after the fact.”

Ex Post Facto Studies Ex post facto – is a Latin phrase meaning “after the fact.” When we conduct an ex post facto study, we are using an IV “after the fact” – it has already varied before we arrived on the scene.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Surveys typically request our opinion on some topic or issue that is of interest to the researcher.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys Descriptive

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys Descriptive – seeks to determine what percentage of the population has a certain characteristic, holds a certain opinion, or engages in a particular behavior.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys Descriptive – seeks to determine what percentage of the population has a certain characteristic, holds a certain opinion, or engages in a particular behavior. Examples:

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys Descriptive – seeks to determine what percentage of the population has a certain characteristic, holds a certain opinion, or engages in a particular behavior. Examples: The Gallup Poll

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys Descriptive – seeks to determine what percentage of the population has a certain characteristic, holds a certain opinion, or engages in a particular behavior. Examples: The Gallup Poll Nielsen television ratings

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys Descriptive Analytic

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys Descriptive Analytic –seeks to determine what the relevant variables are and how they might be related.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys Descriptive Analytic –seeks to determine what the relevant variables are and how they might be related. Questions need to be chosen carefully.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys Descriptive Analytic –seeks to determine what the relevant variables are and how they might be related. Questions need to be chosen carefully. Pilot testing is generally necessary to determine the type of questions that will be used in the final survey instrument.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Developing a Good Survey or Questionnaire (see table 5-1, p. 89).

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered?

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Will you use a mail survey, conduct a phone interview, or conduct the survey in person? Will you use trained interviewers?

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered?

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Yes-No Questions

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items. Forced Alternative Questions

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items. Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative responses.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items. Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative responses. Multiple-Choice Questions

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items. Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative responses. Multiple-Choice Questions The respondent must select the most suitable response from among several alternatives.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items. Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative responses. Multiple-Choice Questions The respondent must select the most suitable response from among several alternatives. Likert-Type Scales

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items. Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative responses. Multiple-Choice Questions The respondent must select the most suitable response from among several alternatives. Likert-Type Scales The individual answers a question by selecting a response alternative from a designated scale. A typical scale might be the following: (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) undecided, (2) disagree, or (1) strongly disagree.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative responses. Multiple-Choice Questions The respondent must select the most suitable response from among several alternatives. Likert-Type Scales The individual answers a question by selecting a response alternative from a designated scale. A typical scale might be the following: (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) undecided, (2) disagree, or (1) strongly disagree. Open-Ended Questions

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Multiple-Choice Questions The respondent must select the most suitable response from among several alternatives. Likert-Type Scales The individual answers a question by selecting a response alternative from a designated scale. A typical scale might be the following: (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) undecided, (2) disagree, or (1) strongly disagree. Open-Ended Questions A question is asked to which the respondent must construct his or her own answer.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short, and specific.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short, and specific. Use familiar vocabulary and be at the reading level of the individuals you intend to test.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short, and specific. Step 4

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short, and specific. Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from knowledgeable others.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from knowledgeable others. It is important to ask others, especially professionals who have expertise in your area of research interest, to review your items. They may be able to detect biases and unintended wordings that you had not considered.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short, and specific. Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from knowledgeable others. Step 5

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short, and specific. Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from knowledgeable others. Step 5 – determine the relevant demographic data to be collected.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 5 – determine the relevant demographic data to be collected. Includes items such as age, sex, annual income, size of community, academic major, and academic classification.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short, and specific. Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from knowledgeable others. Step 5 – determine the relevant demographic data to be collected. Step 6

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short, and specific. Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from knowledgeable others. Step 5 – determine the relevant demographic data to be collected. Step 6 – determine administration procedures and develop instructions.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 6 – determine administration procedures and develop instructions. Instructions must be clear, concise, easy to follow, and thoroughly rehearsed (for in-person or phone interviews). How will informed consent be obtained?

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures Mail Surveys

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures Mail Surveys Advantages

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures Mail Surveys Advantages The researcher does not have to be present while the survey is being completed.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures Mail Surveys Advantages The researcher does not have to be present while the survey is being completed. Surveys can be sent to a much larger number of participants than a single researcher could ever hope to contact in person.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures Mail Surveys Disadvantages

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures Mail Surveys Disadvantages The researcher cannot be sure who actually completes the survey.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures Mail Surveys Disadvantages The researcher cannot be sure who actually completes the survey. There is no guarantee the respondent answered the questions in the same order in which they appeared in the survey.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures Mail Surveys Disadvantages The researcher cannot be sure who actually completes the survey. There is no guarantee the respondent answered the questions in the same order in which they appeared in the survey. Low return rate.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews Advantages When a trained interviewer administers a survey in a respondent’s home, the response rate climbs dramatically.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews Advantages When a trained interviewer administers a survey in a respondent’s home, the response rate climbs dramatically. The trained interviewer is able to clarify ambiguous questions, making sure that all questions are answered in the proper sequence, and generally assisting with any problems that the respondents may experience.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews Disadvantages

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews Disadvantages The potential for considerable expenditure of time and money exists.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews Disadvantages The potential for considerable expenditure of time and money exists. People not always at home.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews Advantages

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews Advantages It is easy to create random samples with random-digit dialing.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews Advantages It is easy to create random samples with random-digit dialing. 95% of households in the U.S. have telephones.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews Advantages It is easy to create random samples with random-digit dialing. 95% of households in the U.S. have telephones. Computer technology allows responses to be entered directly as they are made.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews Disadvantages

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews Disadvantages Incoming calls may be screened and potential respondents lost.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews Disadvantages Incoming calls may be screened and potential respondents lost. It is easy to say no to a phone interviewer.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews Disadvantages Incoming calls may be screened and potential respondents lost. It is easy to say no to a phone interviewer. Cannot use visual aids to clarify questions.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews Disadvantages Incoming calls may be screened and potential respondents lost. It is easy to say no to a phone interviewer. Cannot use visual aids to clarify questions. Cannot evaluate nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, gestures, and posture.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews Disadvantages Incoming calls may be screened and potential respondents lost. It is easy to say no to a phone interviewer. Cannot use visual aids to clarify questions. Cannot evaluate nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, gestures, and posture. It is more difficult to establish rapport.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Tests and inventories are designed to assess a specific attribute, ability, or characteristic possessed by the individual being tested.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories Validity

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories Validity – a test or inventory has validity when it actually measures what it is supposed to measure.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories Validity (ways to establish) Content validity

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories Validity (ways to establish) Content validity – indicates that the test items actually represent the type of material they are supposed to test.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories Validity (ways to establish) Content validity – indicates that the test items actually represent the type of material they are supposed to test. A panel of expert judges is often used to assess the content validity of test items.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories Validity (ways to establish) Content validity Concurrent validity

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories Validity (ways to establish) Content validity Concurrent validity – is established when a score on a test or inventory agrees with another measure (e.g. aggression score on a test agrees with a clinician’s assessment).

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories Validity (ways to establish) Content validity Concurrent validity Criterion validity

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories Validity (ways to establish) Content validity Concurrent validity Criterion validity – is established when a test score compares favorably with a predicted future outcome (e.g. SAT score and college success).

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability Refers to the extent that the test or inventory is consistent in its evaluation of the same individuals over repeated administrations.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability Refers to the extent that the test or inventory is consistent in its evaluation of the same individuals over repeated administrations. The greater the similarity between scores produced by the same individuals on repeated administrations, the greater the reliability of the test or inventory.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability (assessment)

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability (assessment) Test-retest procedure

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability (assessment) Test-retest procedure The test is simply given a second time and scores from the two tests are compared; the greater the similarity, the higher the reliability

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability (assessment) Test-retest procedure Split-Half technique

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability (assessment) Test-retest procedure Split-Half technique Involves dividing a test or inventory into two halves or subtests and then administering them to the same individuals on different occasions or by administering the entire test and then splitting it into two halves.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories Achievement tests

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories Achievement tests Are given when an evaluation of an individual’s level of mastery or competence is desired.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories Achievement tests Are given when an evaluation of an individual’s level of mastery or competence is desired. The score that distinguishes passing from failing determines the minimum level of achievement that must be attained.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories Achievement tests Aptitude tests

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories Achievement tests Aptitude tests Are used to assess an individual’s ability or skill in a particular situation or job.

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories Achievement tests Aptitude tests Personality tests or inventories

Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories Achievement tests Aptitude tests Personality tests or inventories Measure specific aspects of an individual’s motivational state, interpersonal capability, or personality.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Deals with the question of who will participate in our research project and whether they are a representative group.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies The main strategies used by researchers are the:

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies The main strategies used by researchers are the: Single strata approach

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies The main strategies used by researchers are the: Single strata approach Cross sectional approach

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies The main strategies used by researchers are the: Single strata approach Cross sectional approach Longitudinal approach

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Population

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Population The complete set of individuals or events that we want to represent.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Sample

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Sample The group that we select to represent the population is called the sample.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Sample The group that we select to represent the population is called the sample. Random sample

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Sample The group that we select to represent the population is called the sample. Random sample Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Random sample Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample. Random sampling without replacement

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Random sample Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample. Random sampling without replacement The member of population chosen for the sample is not eligible to be selected again once returned to the population.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Random sample Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample. Random sampling without replacement The member of population chosen for the sample is not eligible to be selected again once returned to the population. Random sampling with replacement Member of population chosen for sample is eligible to be selected again once returned to the population.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Random sample Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample. Random sampling without replacement The member of population chosen for the sample is not eligible to be selected again once returned to the population. Random sampling with replacement Member of population chosen for sample is eligible to be selected again once returned to the population. Stratified random sampling

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Random sample Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample. Random sampling without replacement The member of population chosen for the sample is not eligible to be selected again once returned to the population. Random sampling with replacement Member of population chosen for sample is eligible to be selected again once returned to the population. Stratified random sampling Involves dividing the population into subpopulations or strata and then drawing a random sample from one or more of these strata.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Single-strata approach

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Single-strata approach Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment of the population.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Single-strata approach Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment of the population. Cross-sectional research

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Single-strata approach Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment of the population. Cross-sectional research Involves the comparison of two or more groups of participants during the same, rather limited, time span.

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Single-strata approach Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment of the population. Cross-sectional research Involves the comparison of two or more groups of participants during the same, rather limited, time span. Longitudinal research

Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Single-strata approach Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment of the population. Cross-sectional research Involves the comparison of two or more groups of participants during the same, rather limited, time span. Longitudinal research Involves acquiring data from a single group of participants over a long period of time.