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Syllabus You are required only to study any one ecosystem, and to know five animals and five plants from your ecosystem.

Biodiversity in Ireland Eco Eye, Series 9, Episode 2 3

The study of an ecosystem involves studying a number of sample habitats, as follows: 1.Mapping 2.identifying plants and animals 3.estimating the numbers of plants and animals 4.measuring the environmental (abiotic) factors 5.presenting the information

What to observe in an Ecosystem Form a general overview of the area to be studied: Name the types of habitat within the ecosystem as each habitat will have its own populations of organisms which interact with each other and with the non-living environment. 5

Habitats within the Woodland Habitat: Soil, ditch, oak aerial system, hedgerow, stone wall, oak root system. Page 1 of Ecology Report 6

Sketch of Ecosystem 1.Mark off the sample area by using poles with string or flags or by other visible markers 2.Draw a sketch of Ecosystem including features such as a road, wall, path, trees, bushes etc Page 3 of Ecology Report 7

ecosystem-video 8

Organism Distribution 9

Plants Grasses Clover Buttercups Dandelions Daisies Nettles Poppies Thistles Dock Primrose Bluebell

Animals H = herbivore, C = carnivore, O = omnivore, D = detritus feeder (detritus is dead and decomposing organisms) Earthworms (D) Caterpillars (H) Rabbits (H)Snails (H) Ladybirds (C) Badgers (O) Slugs (H)Bees (H) Foxes (C)Spiders (C) Wasps (H, C) Hedgehogs (O) Beetles (C, H, O) Butterflies (H) Thrushes (C)Aphids (H) Moths (H)Blackbirds (O)

Qualitative survey A study determining the types of plants or organisms presence/absence in a habitat. 12

Carry out a qualitative study and note the diversity of flora and fauna in the ecosystem. 1.Use an identification Key to identify five animals and five plants 2.Note the habitat in which each organism was found. 3.Note a structural or behavioural adaptation of the organism. 4.Repeat this procedure to identify any five plants Identify Page 4 of Ecology Report 13

Keys A key asks questions which pinpoint one feature after another of an organism and, in a stepwise fashion enable us to identify it. A simple key consists of pairs of questions to which you answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ You then look to the right of the set of questions, and using the number indicated, move down to the correct set of alternatives. Continue to do this until a name is reached, often accompanied by a drawing, which matches your specimen 14

15 ECOSYSTEMFAUNAFLORA WoodlandOwl, woodlouse, deer, centipede. Arum lily, oak tree, ivy, holly, moss GrasslandSlug, snail, earthworm, field mouse, spider. Daisy, grass, dandelion, clover, plantain HedgerowButterfly, wren, rabbit, hover fly, hedgehog Herb Robert, blackthorn, cow parsley, goose grass, hawthorn.

Sampling 1.Random sampling – avoids bias and ensures that all areas within a habitat have an equal chance of being sampled by using a quadrat. 2.Systematic sampling – here samples are taken at regular intervals throughout the study area. This type of sampling is used where there is an obvious environmental gradient e.g. on a rocky seashore. 16

Quantitative survey Quantitative Study provides a record of the numbers of plants and animals present in a sample area of the selected ecosystem A quantitative study of plants and animals of a sample area of the selected ecosystem is carried out using 1.Percentage frequency and 2.percentage cover techniques. 17

DeviceProcedureCollected KnifeCutPlants, TrowelDigPlants, animals in soil PooterSuckInsects Beating TrayShake bushesCrawling animals Pitfall trapSink into soil or sand Crawling animals Sweep netSweep through grass Insects Collecting plants and animals involves some of the methods shown in the table below

A Quadrat Usually square shaped A frame that forms a known area usually 0.5m X 0.5m = 0.25m 2 Used for random sampling of plants or some slow moving animals 19

Gridded Quadrat Page 6 of Report 20

1. Determining the Percentage Cover of Sedentary Species 21 Can be measured using a gridded quadrat An area of ground occupied by aerial parts of individual plants is examined and counted Results are expressed as a percentage of the total quadrat area Results can be presented as a pie chart or histogram. More than one plant may be hit/ present in each grid, because plants overlap in layers

Percentage Cover procedure Throw a quadrat at random Record the plant hit at each sampling point Repeat for a number of throws Tabulate results Page 6 of Report 22

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Quantitative % cover study of plants 24

Tabulation of results 25 Auto Calculations

Plot Graph X axis = Organisms Y axis = % Frequency Page 5 of Report 26

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2. Percentage Frequency The probability of finding a named plant within the sample area in a number of quadrats May be expressed as a percent of the total number of quadrats sampled 28

Percentage Frequency Procedure 1.Throw the quadrat randomly in the sample area 2.Record the presence or absence of a named organism within each quadrat 3.Repeat for a number of throws 4.Tabulate results Page 8 of Report 29

A quantitative study of plants 30 If percentage is required multiply frequency by 100 Frequency

Tabulation of results 31 Auto Calculations

Conduct a Quantitative Survey of Plants and measure 3 abiotic factors 32 Method: Line Transect 1.Put a measuring tape straight across the habitat 2.Walk beside the line and record the name of each plant touching the line at a certain point. 3.Repeat all along the length of the line transect. 4.Record 3 abiotic factors at each point 5.Combine the results to establish plant distribution. 6.Relate the distribution to the variation of the environmental factors.

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To conduct a quantitative study of organisms along a belt transect Record % cover or number of a named organism in each quadrat along the transect Position of quadrat on belt transect Organism Name0 34 % Cover = No. of hits  100 No. of points on quadrat

Measure Abiotic Factors Page 9 of Report 35

Abiotic and biotic factors 36

Choice of Habitat Relationship between an organism’s suitability to its habitat and abiotic factors to include a measurement of any three abiotic factors: 37 Mineral content Percentage air in soil Percentage water in soil Percentage humus Salinity Degree of exposure Slope pH Temperature (air and ground or aquatic) Light intensity Water current Air current Dissolved oxygen

Observe the influential abiotic factors i.e. if it is exposed, sheltered, flat, on a slope, what direction does it face, influence of wind direction, intensity, drainage, etc. What is the influence of the non- living(abiotic) components on the flora and fauna of the ecosystem? Page 9 of Report 38

Hygrometer - used to measure relative humidity – composed of a wet and a dry bulb thermometer. 39

Wind speed - Anemometer 40

41 Rainfall – Rainfall gauge is used to measure the amount of rainfall in mm.

Soil Temperature - Thermometer 42

Air Temperature - Thermometer 43

Light meter Used to measure the light intensity in units called lux. 44

Adaptations of Organisms to their Environment Need to know structural, competitive or behavioural adaptation by organisms Note an adaptation feature by any organism in your selected ecosystem 45

An adaptation is a process, change, method, characteristic or feature that an organism or species possesses, develops or evolves that suits/adjusts the organism to its environment to increase its chances of survival and reduce competition. Examples: Ladybird warning colouration Field mice are nocturnal: predator avoidance. Page 11 of Report 46

47 AdaptationBenefit BeakShape adapted to method of feeding e.g. pointed beak suitable for probing the ground for earthworms e.g. blackbird Slimy mucusPrevents e.g. snails, earthworms, etc. from drying out as it travels across dry terrain Body colourProvides camouflage and protects animals from predators e.g. woodlice Sharp clawsFor digging e.g. badger TailAids balance e.g. Squirrel on tree tops Bright body colour Deters predators e.g. ladybird (also releases toxic fluids to deter predators)

48 Hairy skin and furTraps a layer of air – insulation Long canine teethKill prey and tear flesh Speed of predatorUsually faster than its prey Long/big earsGood hearing to detect predator NocturnalPredator avoidance e.g. field mice

Look for inter-relationships between the various living organisms in the ecosystem Explain and identify the role of the organism in energy transfers. Construct 1.food chains 2.A food web 3.A pyramid of numbers Page 10 of Report 49

Identify and use various apparatus required for collection methods in an ecological study Collection apparatus Name: How used: Type of organism collected : Page 12 of Report 50

Biodiversity 51

Cryptozoic trap A piece of wood or stone which is left on the ground. After a suitable interval, animals such as slugs, woodlice, centipedes and millipedes will be found underneath. 52

Pitfall Trap Jam jar buried in ground and covered with raised flat stone. Used to collect ground surface animals insects, nocturnal and diurnal e.g. spiders, centipedes, woodlice, beetles, etc. 53

Mammal Trap Used to collect small mammals e.g. mice, voles, etc. 54

Insect net Used for catching flying insects. The net part should be sufficiently long so that the mouth frame seals off the end of the net which contains the catch when the net is laid flat. 55

Sweep Net Used to collect insects from tall grass 56

Beating tray This is a white tray, cotton sheet or large sheet of white paper. It is placed under a bush or tree branch. The tree branch is shaken suddenly and vigorously. Insects and other invertebrates fall onto the tray. 57

Pooter Used for picking up very small animals. Suck through mouthpiece (end of which is covered with muslin) and the animal is taken into jar through the hose. 58

Sieve Organisms that live in leaf litter can be extracted by using a sieve with a mesh size of about 5 mm. 59

Tullgren Funnel Used to extract animals from soil by heating the soil on one side The animals are driven out of the soil by heat from a lamp and fall through a wire gauze 60

Collection Methods MethodUsed for collecting CryptozoicSmall nocturnal animals e.g. slugs, woodlice PitfallSmall animals that walk along the surface of the ground e.g. beetles, spiders Tullgren funnel Small animals from leaf litter and soil samples e.g. worms, spiders PooterInsects and spiders from the surface of leaves and leaf litter SweepInsects from long grass and vegetation Mammal trapSmall mammals e.g. mice, shrew 61

Conduct a Quantitative Survey of fast moving Animals, e.g. fieldmouse population 62 Day 1 1.Capture field mice using small mammal traps. 2.Record the number of captured mice e.g Mark each with a dab of red paint on the belly surface. 4.Release each at their capture site. 5.Allow time for the mice to readjust to normal conditions.

Day 2 1.Capture field mice as before. 2.Record the number captured e.g Record the number of recaptures (marked mice) e.g Return the mice to the habitat at their capture site. 63

the capture–recapture method, i.e. Number = C 1st × C 2nd _____________ M 2nd

Calculation: Population = Day 1 Captures x Day 2 Captures Number of Recaptures = 20 x 18 6 = 60 mice 65

Analysis Prepare a brief report of the results obtained Identify possible sources of error in such a study. 66

Errors During Fieldwork 1.Bias: purposely choosing sample sites to get ‘good results’ or avoid work. 2.Too Few Sample Sites: may not give accurate representative results. 3.Surveyor Variation: students vary in ability, commitment and interest. 4.Equipment Quality: measurement and trapping success will be affected. 67

5. Changing Nature: results may depend on the time of day, season or year. 6. Chance: cannot survey every square centimeter so even with many sites some species may be missed. 7. Improper Trapping Techniques: all evasive species may not be captured and/or insufficient numbers captured in follow up surveying. The study of an EcT 68

A suitable key is used to identify and name organisms. A qualitative study records the presence or absence of species. A quantitative study records the number of each species. Quantitative studies can be: subjective (i.e. a personal judgement is made as to the number) objective (i.e. an independent method of calculating numbers is used) Subjective methods are not recommended, because they depend on individual judgements, which may vary from person to person. CHAPTER 6 STUDY OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Errors may arise in the study of an ecosystem in the following ways: mistakes may be made in judgement and recording conditions change in the ecosystem over time accidental discoveries may be made the habitats studied may not accurately reflect the overall ecosystem CHAPTER 6 STUDY OF AN ECOSYSTEM

A quantative study of plants in a habitat involves using: quadrats, which are examined for: (a) Percentage cover of plants or stationary animals. (b) Frequency transects: (a) Line transect (rope marked at intervals – record what touches the line). (b) Belt transect (equivalent to quadrats taken in a line – methods used are the same as for quadrats). CHAPTER 6 STUDY OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Three sample abiotic factors EcosystemSample factors Measured by Rocky seashoreExposure to airPosition on shore Air temperatureThermometer Wave actionCompare sheltered and exposed habitats CHAPTER 6 STUDY OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Three sample abiotic factors EcosystemSample factors Measured by GrasslandAir temperatureThermometer Soil pHpH meter or universal indicator Light intensityLight meter CHAPTER 6 STUDY OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Effects of abiotic factors EcosystemAbiotic factorInfluence Rocky seashoreExposureDifferent species of wrack and animals are found on different zones of the shore TemperaturePeriwinkles are arranged along a temperature gradient Wave action High wave action forces plants higher on the shore, and favours species with narrow fronds CHAPTER 6 STUDY OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Effects of abiotic factors EcosystemAbiotic factorInfluence GrasslandAir temperatureTemperature differences in different parts of the grassland will affect how well the plants (and animals) grow Soil pHSoil pH will favour some plants and therefore some animals Light intensityGrasses grow better at higher light intensities CHAPTER 6 STUDY OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Organisms show many adaptations that allow them to survive in their habitat. The results of a study can be presented in tables, lists, charts, graphs, diagrams, etc. The results of a study should include food chains, food webs, and pyramids of numbers. The work carried out in Activities 2–5 should be presented in a portfolio. CHAPTER 6 STUDY OF AN ECOSYSTEM