Defining Water Quality The Standard-Setting Process MODULE 5: The Case of Water Chapter 14 Defining Water Quality The Standard-Setting Process [raim] 名 霜;白霜 "Water, water, everywhere, nor any drop to drink" It's from The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge when the Ancient Mariner is stuck in the middle of the sea.

1. Water Resources Water Resources and Their Interdependence Surface water water bodies ________________________, such as rivers, lakes, oceans, streams, springs, wells, or other collectors directly influenced by surface water Groundwater Fresh water _________ the earth’s surface, generally in aquifers Linked together by the __________________ Natural movement of water from the atmosphere to the surface, underground, and back to the atmosphere Explains the interdependence of water resources

Polluting Sources Point Source Any ________________ source from which pollutants are released, such as a factory smokestack, a pipe, or a ship Nonpoint Source A source that cannot be identified accurately and degrades the environment in a _______, ________ way over a relatively ______ area

2. Overview of US Legislation Similar to U.S. air quality laws, no federal legislation dealing with water pollution until _____ Even then, federal responsibility was limited In the 1970s, landmark legislation was passed, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA) of _____ Guides much of today’s policy Main responsibility for water quality shifted to the federal level Specific goals for water quality were established New technology-based effluent limitations were set Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1977 extended compliance deadlines and strengthened the law on toxic pollutants FWPCA of 1972 was overly ambitious

Current U.S. Legislation _____________________________ governs policy today Required states to set up programs for nonpoint sources Its reauthorization is still pending Meanwhile, in 2002, Congress passed the Great Lakes Legacy Act, amending CWA to fund addressing contaminated sediments in the Great Lakes basin.

3. Federal Policy Goals (from FWPCA of 1972) Zero discharge goal Eliminate release of all effluents into navigable waters by 1985 Fishable-swimmable goal Requires that surface waters be capable of supporting _________________ activities and the propagation of fish and wildlife by 1983 No toxics in toxic amounts Prohibit release of toxic pollutants in toxic amounts into all water resources Interim goal None of them were met by deadlines, nor have they been achieved

Water Pollutants Under the Law Toxic pollutants upon exposure will cause death, disease, abnormalities, etc. Conventional pollutants identified and well understood by scientists, in forms of organic waste, sediment, bacteria, nutrients, oil, heat… Non-conventional pollutants default category common pollutants produced in large amounts

4. Standards to Define Water Quality Receiving Water Quality Standards (1965 law) Set by states for each water body Two components Use designation: intended purpose of water body; at minimum must meet swimmable-fishable standard Water quality criteria: biological and chemical attributes to sustain or achieve use designation; pollutant specific

State Use-Support Status FYi State Use-Support Status Periodically, states must determine use-support status for each water body Assess the water body’s present condition and compare it with what is needed to maintain its designated uses Use-support status is characterized using one of five classifications: Fully supporting; threatened; partially supporting; not supporting; and not attainable Findings are reported to Congress as part of a biennial National Water Quality Inventory

5. Analyzing the Standards Absence of Benefit-Cost Analysis States could use benefit-cost analysis in setting the receiving water quality standards, but they were not required by law to do so Use designation had to be consistent with national goals, meaning at minimum achieving swimmable-fishable quality, a goal that is solely ____________________ Therefore, no assurance that efficiency is achieved

FYi Inconsistency Issues Standards are not consistent with technology-based effluent limits set at the federal level In some cases, the limits are met, but the standards are not achieved. Why? Standards (the objective) are motivated by use Effluent limits (policy instrument) are motivated by technology, i.e., by what is feasible

FYi Law requires states to identify waters for which the effluent limitations are insufficient These water bodies are to be labeled "water quality limited" and placed in a priority ranking For these waters, more stringent controls are set, called total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) These TMDLs specify the maximum amount of pollution that can be received without violating the standards

6. Updated Benefit-Cost Analysis (Carson and Mitchell’s Analysis of Post-1972 Policy Revisions) Total Social Benefits Based on ____________________________ (CVM) CVM can account for existence value and user value TSB1990 = _______________ ($1990) Represents the value of improving water quality from nonboatable up to swimmable

Total Social Costs Average two estimates TSC1988 = $37.3 billon ($1990) Dept of Commerce data used by Carson & Mitchell TSC1990 = $50.6 billion ($1990) EPA projected data TSC1990 = _______________ ($1990)

Benefit-Cost Comparison Result: ________________ So net benefit is positive Question: Is allocative efficiency achieved?

Marginal Analysis Approximated with incrementals using Freeman’s (1982) earlier estimates for 1985 MSC1990 = TSC1990  TSC1985 = $44.0B  34.6B = ________ ($1990) MSB1990 = TSB1990  TSB1985 = $46.7B  20.1B = ________ ($1990) Since ________________ abatement levels are not efficient water quality control is likely ______________

Benefit Cost Comparison post-1972 policy At A1990, MSB > MSC  underregulation MSC 26.6 $1990 billions 9.4 MSB A1990 AE Abatement