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The Research Process Dr. Craig Jackson Senior Lecturer in Health Psychology Faculty of Health UCE Birminghamhcc.uce.ac.uk/craigjackson

Observation: The death rate amongst owners of two or more television sets is twice that of those with one or none. Conclusion: Watching TV contributes to early death (probably from sedentary activity or radiation) Question 1

Observation: The average age of death of dress-makers is exceedingly low: 25 years for all dress makers in the UK. Conclusion: Dress-making is a dangerous occupation Question 2

Observation: According to a review of 3,000 patients who have diabetes, two thirds of these patients had, at some time weighed 11 % or more above the normal for their sex and age. Conclusion: Obesity is associated with diabetes Question 3

Observation: The annual death rate for Florida is 25 per 1,000 population. For Alaska it is 17 per 1,000 population. Conclusion: Alaska is a healthier place to live than Florida Question 4

Observation: 1 in 8 individuals in the general population develop cancer. In cancer patients, only 1 in 20 develop a second cancer Conclusion: This suggests that immunity to cancer develops as a result of a first cancer Question 5

Observation: Repeated studies show that herpes virus is significantly associated with Ca cervix. Conclusion: Studies on herpes infection are generally free from bias, therefore it is appropriate to conclude that herpes virus infection is carcinogenic to the cervix. Question 6

Observation: (by court-appointed psychiatrists) People who smoke marijuana seem to have socially deviant behaviour and have psychological problems. After stopping the habit, they show less deviant behaviour and seem to cope better. Results are statistically significant Conclusion: Smoking ‘pot’ is bad for you. Question 7

Observation: Among 70,000 employees of the American Tobacco Co., there were twice as many smokers (and heavy smokers) than the general population. Despite this, the employees have a) Increased longevity, b) at each age, lower death rates from all forms of cancer and heart disease Conclusion: This provides evidence against smoking as a contributory cause of cancer & heart disease. Question 8

Observation: After treatment of SARS cases with Fabulomycin, 66.6% of patients recovered. Conclusion: Fabulomycin is wonderful Question 9

Observation: 98% of all deaths occur to individuals while they are in bed. Conclusion: Bed is a dangerous place. Question 10

Observation: 20% of drivers involved in motor vehicle accidents have detectable alcohol in their blood. Conclusion: The police should focus their efforts on the 80% of drivers who do not have any blood alcohol. Question 11

Observation: Heart attacks are far more likely to occur during periods of rest or inactivity (>50% of cases) than during strenuous exercise. In fact < 2% are affected while engaging in sports, running, lifting, or moving heavy loads. Conclusion: This shows that there is no positive link between heavy activity and heart attacks. Question 12

Observation: In a study of maternal deaths during childbirth, the median age of the husbands were noted. Age of husband at wife’s deathMaternal deaths % % % % Conclusion: Wives of young husbands are at higher risk. Hence, women should marry older men. Question 13

Why do research? ?

Who does the research? ?

Who pays for the research? ?

Who decides if the research is ethical? ?

Who decides if the research is any use? ?

What happens to the research? ?

What decisions are made after the research? ?

Further Reading Altman, D.G. “Designing Research”. In: Altman, D.G., (ed.) Practical Statistics For Medical Research. London, Chapman and Hall, 1991; Bland, M. “The design of experiments”. In: Bland, M., (ed.) An introduction to medical statistics. Oxford, Oxford Medical Publications, 1995; Daly, L.E., Bourke, G.J. “Epidemiological and clinical research methods”. In: Daly L.E., Bourke, G.J., (eds.) Interpretation and uses of medical statistics. Oxford, Blackwell Science Ltd, 2000; Jackson, C.A. “Study Design” & “Sample Size and Power”. In: Gao Smith, F. and Smith, J. (eds.) Key Topics in Clinical Research. Oxford, BIOS scientific Publications, Jackson, C.A. “Planning Health & Safety Research Projects in the Workplace”. Croner Health and Safety at Work Special Report 2002; 62: 1-16.

Further Reading Kumar, R. Research Methodology: a step by step guide for beginners. Sage, London Abbott, P. and Sapsford. Research methods for nurses and the caring professions. Open University Press, Buckingham Bowling, A. Measuring Health. Open University Press, Milton Keynes 1994 Polit, D. & Hungler, B. Nursing research: Principles and methods (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins 2003.