Chapter 9 Qualitative Methods: Introduction and Data Collection

CONTENTS Introduction: nature, history and development Merits, functions, limitations The qualitative research process The range of methods – introduction Validity and reliability

Data collection/analysis Typically, in qualitative methods, data collection and analysis are intermingled Although Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management has separate chapters on data collection (Ch. 9) and data analysis (Ch. 15), this relationship is recognised. A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Nature of qualitative methods Qualitative methods deal with: – words (+, sometimes, images, sounds) – generally a great deal of information about relatively few cases/subjects, sometimes called ‘rich’ or ‘thick’ data Reason for use: – pragmatic: eg. nature of the data, small number of available subjects – theoretical: subjects ‘speak for themselves’ A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Merits Correspond to the qualitative nature of sport experiences. Brings people into sport research and studies them ‘in the round’ (Maguire). Results understandable to people not statistically trained. Able to encompass personal change over time. Suited to investigating face-to-face interaction between people (symbols, gestures, etc.). Suited to providing an understanding of people's needs and aspirations. A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Use in market research (Peterson) developing hypotheses on behaviour and attitudes; identifying the full range of issues/views/attitudes to be pursued in larger-scale research; suggesting methods for quantitative enquiry; identifying appropriate language to use in surveys; understanding buying decision-making process; developing new product/service/marketing strategy ideas – free play of attitudes/opinions a rich source of ideas for the marketer; providing initial screening of new product/service/ strategy ideas; learning how communications are received by potential customers – particularly related to advertising. A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Qualitative methods: ‘Issues’ (Miles & Huberman) Labour-intensiveness Time-extensiveness Frequent data overload Possibility of researcher bias Time demands of processing/coding data Adequacy of sampling Generalisability Credibility, quality and utility of conclusions A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Qualitative research process Qualitative research process (Fig. 9.1) 4. Write up results 1. Hypothesise/ conceptualise/plan 2. Collect data 3. Analyse data Sequential approach (typical of quant. methods) A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Qualitative research process Qualitative research process (Fig. 9.1) 4. Write up results 1. Hypothesise/ conceptualise/plan 2. Collect data 3. Analyse data Sequential approach (typical of quant. methods) Recursive approach (typical of qualitative methods) A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss) Theory arises from (qualitative) empirical A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

The range of methods of qualitative data collection The range of methods of qualitative data collection (Fig. 9.2) TypeFeatures In-depth interviewsChecklist rather than questionnaire Usually small number of subjects A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

The range of methods of qualitative data collection The range of methods of qualitative data collection (Fig. 9.2) TypeFeatures In-depth interviewsChecklist rather than questionnaire Usually small number of subjects Focus groupsGroups (5-12) with facilitator rather than interviewer A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

The range of methods of qualitative data collection The range of methods of qualitative data collection (Fig. 9.2) TypeFeatures In-depth interviewsChecklist rather than questionnaire Usually small number of subjects Focus groupsGroups (5-12) with facilitator rather than interviewer Participant observationResearcher is participant with subjects A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

The range of methods of qualitative data collection The range of methods of qualitative data collection (Fig. 9.2) TypeFeatures In-depth interviewsChecklist rather than questionnaire Usually small number of subjects Focus groupsGroups (5-12) with facilitator rather than interviewer Participant observationResearcher is participant with subjects Biographical methodsFull or partial life histories A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

The range of methods of qualitative data collection The range of methods of qualitative data collection (Fig. 9.2) TypeFeatures In-depth interviewsChecklist rather than questionnaire Usually small number of subjects Focus groupsGroups (5-12) with facilitator rather than interviewer Participant observationResearcher is participant with subjects Biographical methodsFull or partial life histories Textual analysisPrint and audio-visual material )can also be quantitative A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

The range of methods of qualitative data collection The range of methods of qualitative data collection (Fig. 9.2) TypeFeatures In-depth interviewsChecklist rather than questionnaire Usually small number of subjects Focus groupsGroups (5-12) with facilitator rather than interviewer Participant observationResearcher is participant with subjects Biographical methodsFull or partial life histories Textual analysisPrint and audio-visual material )can also be quantitative EthnographyUses a number of the above techniques – from anthropology A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Context: questions, responses & interview types (Fig. 9.3) Interview typeQuestion formatResponsesInterviewer/interviewee interaction StructuredPrescribed by questionnaire Pre-codedFormal, consistent StructuredPrescribed by questionnaire Open- ended Formal, consistent A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Questions, responses & interview types (Fig. 9.3) Interview typeQuestion formatResponsesInterviewer/interviewee interaction StructuredPrescribed by questionnaire Pre-codedFormal, consistent StructuredPrescribed by questionnaire Open- ended Formal, consistent Structured + semi-structured elements Prescribed by questionnaire + supplementary Open- ended Mostly formal, consistent Semi-structuredChecklist: question format not prescribed Open- ended Conversational, variable A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Questions, responses & interview types (Fig. 9.3) Interview typeQuestion formatResponsesInterviewer/interviewee interaction StructuredPrescribed by questionnaire Pre-codedFormal, consistent StructuredPrescribed by questionnaire Open- ended Formal, consistent Structured + semi-structured elements Prescribed by questionnaire + supplementary Open- ended Mostly formal, consistent Semi-structuredChecklist: question format not prescribed Open- ended Conversational, variable UnstructuredOnly the broad topic area is prescribed Open- ended Free-flowing conversational, variable A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

In-depth interviews Nature: – Length – 30 mins to several hours – Depth – more in-depth than a typical questionnaire-based interview – Structure – fluid, informal structure Purposes/situations: – No. of subjects small – Information complex/variable – Exploratory/preliminary. Checklist of topics: – rather than formal list of questions A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Example of checklist: interview on sport activity (Fig. 9.4, part) CURRENT SPORTS ACTIVITIES HOW OFTEN? WHY? EXPLORE EACH ONE – COMPARE WHERE? home/away from home WHO WITH? MEANING/IMPORTANCE TYPE OF INVOLVEMENT ACTIVITIES WOULD LIKE TO DO WHY? MEANING TO YOU OF: ‘FITNESS’ ‘SPORT’ A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

In-depth interview: interviewing process Standardised approach: – question format same for all subjects – minimal unscripted interaction Informal/unstructured approach – Free-form, conversational – Substantial interaction A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

In-depth interview: interviewer interventions (Whyte) (Fig. 9.5) 1. ‘Uh-huh’Non-verbal response - indicates that the interviewer is still listening/ interested. 2. ‘That’s interesting’ Encourages the subject to keep talking/expand on the current topic. 3. ReflectionRepeating last statement as a question - e.g. 'So you don't like sport?' 4. ProbeInvites explanations - e.g. 'Why don't you like sport?' 5. Back trackingRecall something said earlier – invite further information - e.g. 'Let's go back to what you were saying about your school days'. 6. New topicInitiating a new topic - e.g. 'Can we talk about other leisure activities - what about entertainment?' A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

In-depth interview: recording Take notes, during or after the interview? Sound/video recording? – Create written version: Transcription: – Use of transcription software A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Focus groups Nature: Similar to in-depth interviews but: Conducted with a group (typically 6-12 members). Facilitator (rather than interviewer) guides discussion. Interaction between subjects takes place. Purposes/situations: researching a small group which would not be adequately represented in a general community survey used when the interaction/discussion process itself is of interest – eg. testing reactions to a new product; individual in-depth interviews may not be practical to arrange for s but people are willing to be interviewed as a group. A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Focus groups contd Methods: Facilitator has similar role to interviewer Significant difference: need to ensure all group members have their say Recording: as for in-depth interviews A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Participant observation Nature: The researcher becomes a participant in the social process being studied. Examples: Studying a whole community by living there – Whyte Street Corner Society Studying a sport facility/club as a user/member. A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Participant observation: issues Gaining admission to/acceptance by a group What role to play: – Full identification as researcher? – Partial identification? – No identification or fake identity? – NB Related ethical issues Identification of informants/confidants – related to the idea of sampling Practicalities of recording of information A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Analysing texts Research tradition derived from the humanities – And theology: hermeneutics ‘Text’ includes: – Books, newspapers, magazines- Pictures – Posters- Recorded music – Film- Television – Internet Examples exist of analysis of : – Novels and other literature – Mass media coverage of events/issues – Film – Internet A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Biographical research The study of people’s lives Biography/autobiography/personal narrative – eg. major figures in a sport Oral history – eye-witness accounts of events, lifestyles Memory work – Focus group style process using shared written accounts of experiences – eg. holidays Personal domain histories – Accounts of individual life-time experience of a life- domain, eg. Sports involvement A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Ethnography From the Greek ethnos, people. Not one technique but an approach drawing on a variety of, generally qualitative, techniques. Also: bricollage: mixed methods. A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Validity, reliability and trustworthiness As discussed in Ch. 2: – Validity: extent to which the research represents what is intended – Reliability: extent to which research is replicable Internal validity: data gathering process: – qualitative research validity likely to be high External validity: applicability beyond the research subjects: – typically no general applicability is claimed, but some wider applicability can be expected … A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Validity, reliability and trustworthiness contd Replication – Often not possible in qualitative research, but like meta- analysis, cumulative evidence from similar studies may be used. Trustworthiness – term used for qualitative research to cover validity and reliability A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge