Prehistoric Western Europe

 The Stone Age ◦ Scholars divided the Western European Stone Age into three periods:  Paleolithic (“old stone”)—earliest and longest period  Mesolithic (“middle stone”)—transition period  Neolithic (“new stone”)—from hunting-gathering to farming ◦ The periods are known as the Stone Age from mankind’s use of stone tools and weapons during the era ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.2

 Paleolithic (c. 1,500,000–c B.C.) ◦ Nomadic hunters and gatherers; lived communally ◦ Sculpture  Carving—a subtractive process  Modeling—an additive process ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.3

4 Venus of Wilendorf, 4.5 inches, 25,000 – 21,000 B.C., Limestone In the round — completely detached from its original material

©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.5 Venus of Laussel, from Laussel, Dorogne, France c. 25,000 – 23,000 B.C., Limestone 17 3/8 inches In relief — more pictorial than sculpture in the round High relief Low relief or bas-relief Sunken This is an incised or sunken relief

 Paleolithic (c. 1,500,000–c B.C.) (continued) ◦ Painting  Pigment—the basis of color  Medium or binder—adheres the pigment to the support  Vehicle—also known as a medium or binder  Support—the surface being painted ◦ The Chauvet Cave  Ardèche Valley—southeast France  Contains over 300 wall paintings  Paintings radiocarbon-dated to as early as 30,000 B.C. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.6

7 Left section of Lion Panel, Chuvet Cave, Ardece Vally, France, c. 25,000 – 17,000 B.C., Black pigment on limestone wall

 Paleolithic (c. 1,500,000–c B.C.) (continued) ◦ The Lascaux Cave  Dordogne region of France  A wide range of animals species adorn the walls  Artifacts found at the site include painting materials  Paintings are among the best examples of Paleolithic artists’ ability to create the illusion of motion  Site dates to 15,000 B.C. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.8

9 Hall of Running Bulls, Lascaux, Dordogne, France, c. 15,000 – 13,000 B.C ft., paint on cave wall

©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.10 Chinese Horse, Lascaux, Dordogne, France, Paint on Limestone rock c. 15,000 – 13,000 B.C.

 Beyond the West ◦ Rock Paintings of Australia (c. 75,000/50,000 B.C.–present)  Stone tools and other objects suggest Australia was inhabited as long ago as 174,000 B.C.  Carved and painted rocks date from roughly 70,000 B.C.  Similarities between European Paleolithic and Aboriginal rock paintings, even though there was no contact or exchange ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.11 Men and Women Hunting Kangaroos, Unbalanya Hill, Amhem Land, Northern Territory, Australia

©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.12 kids/australia-rockart-kids/

 Mesolithic (c. 8000–c. 6000/4000 B.C.) ◦ Transitional period more noteworthy for its cultural and environmental changes than for its art  Neolithic (c. 6000/4000–c B.C.) ◦ Revolutionary shift from hunting and gathering to farming contributed to the development of a new art form: monumental stone architecture ◦ Menhirs—upright stone monoliths (single stones)  Erected individually, in clusters, or in rows ◦ Dolmens—chambers or enclosures consisting of two or more vertical stones supporting a large single stone ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.13

©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.14 Menhir is from the Celtic word men meaning “stone” and hir meaning “long”

©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.15 Dolmen, Carnac, Brittany, France, c B.C. From the Celtic word, dol, meaning “table”

 Neolithic (c. 6000/4000–c B.C.) (continued) ◦ Cromlechs—megalithic structures in which menhirs form circles or semicircles.  Stonehenge cromlech functioned as a celestial calendar  Scholars theorize that rites, processions, and sacred dances were held in and around megalithic structures ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.16 Stonehenge, Salisbury, England, c B.C., the most famous Cromlech! Cromlech in the ancient Celtic language means “circular place”

◦ Post-and-lintel construction  A construction method comprised of vertical support (post) and horizontal span (lintel) elements  Mortice and tenon joinery used to fix the post and lintel ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.17

©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.18

©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.19

©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.20 Facts on Stonehenge Stonehenge was built between 3100 – 1100 BCE. but these dates vary greatly The circle was aligned with the midsummer sunrise, the midwinter sunset, and the most southerly rising and northerly setting of the moon. The ground plan and structural engineering of Stonehenge incorporate sophisticated mathematical and geometrical understandings on the part of its builders. There were two types of stones used in its construction: the ‘bluestones’ (weighing as much as four tons and brought from 240 miles away) and the Sarsen stones (averaging eighteen feet in height and twenty-five tons in weight). It has been estimated that the construction of Stonehenge required more than thirty million hours of labor. More than nine hundred stone rings exist in the British Isles. Of these, Stonehenge is the most well known. The megalithic monuments of Britain and Europe predate those of the eastern Mediterranean, Egyptian, Mycenaean and Greek cultures. The Druids had nothing to do with the construction of the stone rings. Druids are known to have conducted their ritual activities mostly in sacred forest groves.

©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.21 Stonehenge Purposes Prior to the 1950’s most archaeologists believed that Stonehenge’s use had been limited to the ritual activities of different Neolithic chiefdoms. However, it is now known that Stonehenge had another equally important function, which was its use as an astronomical observatory. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Oxford University engineer Professor Alexander Thom and the astronomer Gerald Hawkins pioneered the new field of archaeoastronomy - the study of the astronomies of ancient civilizations. Conducting surveys at Stonehenge and other megalithic structures, Thom and Hawkins discovered many significant astronomical alignments among the stones. This evidence indicates that Stonehenge and other stone rings were used as astronomical observatories. Stonehenge was simultaneously used for both astronomical observation and ritual function. By gathering data regarding the movement of celestial bodies, the Stonehenge observations were used to indicate appropriate periods in the annual ritual cycle. During those periods, among them being the solstices, equinoxes and different lunar days, festivals and ceremonies were held.