Chapter Ten The Organization and Funding of Schools

School Organization Today  Hierarchical Model (Top Down)  Concentric Ring Model

Hierarchical Model of School Organization  Most models are hierarchical (top-down)  These schemes picture the state legislature, school board, and other administrative structure as layers “above” the local school.  Teachers are depicted at the bottom, often placed “below” the school custodian and secretary.

Concentric Ring Model of School Organization  The Concentric Ring Model demonstrates the central role of the teacher in the organizational scheme.  It may help to emphasize the importance of teachers in the structure of modern education.

Professional Relationships in Education: Line and Staff  Line relationships represent the direct authority of one individual to another such as the principal’s relationship to you.  Staff relationships are less formal and have no supervisory or evaluation component, such as the department chair, team leader or mentor.

Educational Administration  The Federal Government  The State Government  The Local School District  The Local School

Federal Government Administration  Local communities and states traditionally maintained a great deal of power regarding education.  During the 1800s, schools gradually came under the authority of the states, although local communities continued to play a major role.  By the twentieth century, some control of schools gradually began to shift to the national level.

Direct Federal Control  The U.S. Congress directly funds and administers the schools in the nation’s capitol, Washington D.C.  The Federal Government controls schools attended by children… of National Park employees of National Park employees living in “outlying possessions” living in “outlying possessions” on Indian reservations on Indian reservations on military bases on military bases

U.S. Department of Education: A Short History  In 1867, the first Department of Education was established by an act of Congress. Assisted with the important work of the Freedmen’s Bureau schools. Assisted with the important work of the Freedmen’s Bureau schools. Collected statistics to document the progress of education. Collected statistics to document the progress of education.  In 1868, the Department of Education was “downgraded” to the status of an “Office” within the Department of Interior.  In 1939 the office was reassigned to the Federal Security Agency, that later (1953) was renamed the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  The Office of Education remained here until 1979 when it achieved cabinet level status as the Department of Education.

The Role of the U.S. Department of Education  Funding  Advocacy  Research

Department of Education: Funding  Provides categorical financial aid for bilingual education, vocational education, disabilities education and programs such as anti-drug education and head start.  It also allocates funds for student financial aid for college.

Department of Education: Advocacy  Some programs are promoted through the authority of the Secretary of the Department of Education Privatization Privatization Voucher plans Voucher plans School choice School choice  The President of the United States has used his power to influence educational policy (NCLB).

Department of Education: Research  Regional Resource Centers and Educational Laboratories inform educators of cutting edge research through seminars, workshops and conferences.  National Centers, Clearinghouses, and Regional Assistance Centers provide training and technical assistance to improve teaching and learning.

The State Administration  State Governors, Legislatures, and the Courts shape general school policy through statues (laws) and they proscribe the duties of other educational units such as the state board of education.  State Boards of Education provide advisory and regulatory functions regarding education and define standards for teacher credentialing and licensure.  State Departments of Education typically regulate the certification requirements of teachers, maintain school bus schedules and administer special programs for the state.

Duties of the State Board of Education  Regulate school curriculum  Make school attendance policy  Establish teacher licensure requirements  Implement policy mandated by the state legislature  Make policy recommendations to the state legislature  Monitor teacher education programs  Evaluate school test data

State Department of Education (or State Department of Public Instruction)  Implement and monitor state-wide testing programs  Review teachers’ credentials and issue teaching licenses  Establish curriculum guidelines and standards  Conduct training sessions for teachers and administrators  Approve teacher education programs and teacher specialty areas  Approve new Charter Schools  Implement new initiatives such as the NCLB

The State Superintendent  The chief school executive officer of the state.  Works directly with the State Board of Education on educational policy.  Ultimate arbiter of educational policy.

The School District  Typically operates at the municipal (city), township, or county level.  Has its own school board and administration.

Functions of the District Board of Education  Funding  Maintenance  Property and Construction  Materials and Supplies  Curriculum and Programs  Hiring of teachers  Admission and Regulation of Students

The District Superintendent  Provides leadership and is often the spokesperson for the local board.  Attends to the day-to-day operations of the school district.  Oversees the school budget and deals with controversial issues.

Local School Administration  Local schools attend to the day-to-day business of education.  Provides the basic administrational structure that governs the teachers and students.

The Principal’s Responsibilities  Selects teachers for his or her school.  Evaluates teachers.  Allocates funds from the school budget.  Coordinates special support staff services (i.e., school counselors, school psychologists, social workers, nurses, etc.) for teachers and students.  Maintains the school facilities and grounds and coordinates the maintenance staff.  Coordinates curriculum and instruction in the school.

The Principal’s Responsibilities (Continued)  Schedules classes, teachers and room assignments.  Supervises office staff.  Acts as the chief disciplinarian.  Schedules special events such as athletic games, open houses, parent conferences, and holiday concerts.  Serves as a mediator between teachers and parents in case of conflict.  Serves as a liaison between the school and the PTA.  Coordinates and schedules testing.

Duties of the Assistant Principal  Schedules classes and classrooms  Orders supplies and textbooks  Arranges the cafeteria schedule  Handles discipline  Schedules the use of special school facilities such as the gym, athletic fields computer labs, or library  Coordinates school testing and assessment  Monitors student attendance  Budgets school funds

School Support Staff  School Secretary  Custodians  Cafeteria Workers

The Funding of Schools  Schools are funded with tax revenues from federal, state, and local governments.  Revenues are distributed by governmental agencies to local school districts.  While this financial scheme may appear to be simple and fair, it is neither.

Federal Aid  The federal government has traditionally played a minor role in the funding of schools.  However, prior to the adoption of the Constitution it actively supported public education through the provisions of the Northwest Ordinance.  Under the ordinance a portion of land was to be used for public education.  As a result local communities were able to establish and support public schools.

Federal aid to Education is Controversial  Opponents of federal involvement in education argue that it is unconstitutional, noting the provisions set forth in the Tenth Amendment.  Those who favor a greater role for the federal government, note that the most important function of government as outlined in the Preamble to the Constitution is to “promote the general welfare” of the people and that there is no better way to achieve that goal than by supporting public education.  States and local school districts are held accountable for their use of this federal money. It is this accountability that is sometimes resented by school administrators.

State Funding of Schools  States typically rely on sales taxes and income taxes and lotteries to help fund their schools.  Income taxes are “progressive” because they are graduated according to ones ability to pay.  Sales taxes are “regressive” because the poor must pay a larger proportion of their income on the sales tax of food or clothing than do the rich.  Recently, states have used lotteries as a new source of revenue – though these funds must be carefully monitored.

Local Tax Revenues- Property Taxes  Property taxes have been the primary source of funding for schools for many years.  These taxes are a stable source of income but are often assessed unevenly.  Artificially low tax bases can dramatically effect the funding of public schools in the community.

Rich and Poor Communities  Even if tax rates in poor communities were assessed at their maximum level, revenues would still be dramatically lower than more developed, richer communities.  Although this may seem unfair, the Supreme Court argued in San Antonio v Rodriguez (1973) that it was the state’s responsibility to remedy these problems of inequity.  This remains one of the central complications of the current system of financing education.

The Future of Educational Finance  The current system of financing public schools is troubling.  Since 1973, the courts have grappled with public school finance and often have found it unfair.  As a result, school systems have embraced equity and adequacy reforms.

School Finance Equity Reforms  In Serrano v Priest (1971) the California Supreme Court declared that the state’s system of school finance was unconstitutional.  As a result of this decision, a number of states embraced school equity programs that redirected some money from richer to poorer school districts.  One of the most successful of these school equity programs was implemented in Kentucky (KERA).

School Finance Adequacy Reform  As a result of the Serrano decision, other states have moved cautiously toward so-called adequacy reform.  These “reforms” provides a minimum or “foundation level” of funding for each student in the state.  However, funding levels are often well below the minimum expenses for education today.  A good example of this funding “reform” can be seen in the New Jersey Supreme Court case of Abbott v Burke. The court mandated that the state spend significantly more money on these 28 failing school districts, known as “Abbott districts.” The court mandated that the state spend significantly more money on these 28 failing school districts, known as “Abbott districts.”

New Directions in School Financing: Sales Tax  Michigan has recently presented us with a third alternative beyond equity or adequacy reform. This funding compromise involved a shift away from the traditional reliance on property taxes to fund schools toward the broader use of state sales taxes for schools. This funding compromise involved a shift away from the traditional reliance on property taxes to fund schools toward the broader use of state sales taxes for schools. By using state sales tax revenues as the primary source of school funding, property taxes were reduced and inequities caused by rich and poor school districts were minimized. By using state sales tax revenues as the primary source of school funding, property taxes were reduced and inequities caused by rich and poor school districts were minimized.

New Directions in School Financing: Other Approaches  Some school districts have turned to advertising as a source of revenue.  Still other schools have used student fees for busing, parking, etc.  Many communities borrow money for education by issuing bonds.

Homeschooling and Vouchers  In the last thirty years, since the famous Gideon v Wainwright Supreme Court decision declared that mandatory prayer in public schools was unconstitutional, many conservative groups have advocated homeschooling where their values can freely be taught.  Others have embraced vouchers where state or federal money would be allocated to each family to use for the education of their children.  In 1998, the Supreme Court argued that Milwaukee’s voucher plan was unconstitutional and as a result, could not be used for religious schools.  Today, the majority of the American people support the traditional public school system and parents oppose private school choice plans by a margin of 2 to 1.

Privatization of Public Schools  Privatization plans essentially turn over the public schools to a private company.  These “for profit” school businesses receive funding from the state and district and keep the profits they make.  This transfers money – designated for public schools – to private institutions and reduces revenues for public education.