Mapping for Learning: Learning and Transfer Based on: National Research Council. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. National Academy Press. Washington, D. C. This part contains summary of 3. Learning and Transfer Summer 2001 Mara Alagic

Transfer Transfer can be defined as the ability to extend what has been learned in one context to new contexts Measures of transfer play an important role in assessing the quality of people’s learning experiences. Assumptions about transfer accompany the belief that it is better to broadly “educate” people than simply “train” the m to perform particular tasks (Broudy, 1977) Summer 2001 Mara Alagic

Key Characteristics of Learning and Transfer Initial learning Abstract representations versus contextualized knowledge Transfer - an active, dynamic process rather than a passive end-product New learning involves transfer based on previous learning Summer 2001 Mara Alagic

Elements that Promote Initial Learning Understanding versus memorizing Time to learn Feedback Motivation ELEMENTS THAT PROMOTE INITIAL LEARNING Understanding versus memorizing - Transfer is affected by the degree to which people learn with understanding rather than merely memorize sets of facts or follow a fixed set of procedures. Examples: throwing darts at a target underwater - understanding refraction of light; Differences between veins and arteries Time to learn - It takes time to learn complex subject matter: Example - chess masters: “Much of the time involves the development of pattern recognition skills that support the fluent identification of meaningful patterns of information plus knowledge of their implications for future outcomes.” Feedback Motivation affects the amount of time that people are willing to devote to learning. However, challenges must be at the proper level of difficulty in order to be and to remain motivating (too easy - boring; too difficult - frustration) “performance” or “learning” oriented (often depends on the topic or other factors) Social opportunities also affect motivation;Usefulness Summer 2001 Mara Alagic

Other Factors that Influence Transfer Context - Transfer across contexts Multiple representations What is learned versus what is tested Abstracted representations become components of schemata Dynamic process Metacognition Context - People can learn in one context, yet fail to transfer to another context Transfer across contexts is especially difficult when a subject is taught only in a single context rather than in multiple contexts (Bjork & Holyoak, 1983) How to deal with lack of flexibility: from simple case to similar case(s); what if …?; generalization Multiple representations Learning and transfer conditions - Transfer is always a function of relationships between what is learned and what is tested (Example - fortress problem and cancer problem, p. 64) Studies show that abstracted representations do not remain as isolated instances of events but become components of larger, related events, schemata (Holyoak, 1984; Novick & Holyoak, 1991) Active versus passive approaches to transfer - a dynamic process - with prompting, transfer can improve quite dramatically Transfer and metacognition - EXAMPLES:Reciprocal teaching - instruction and practice; provision; social setting. Procedural facilitation - prompts learners to adopt the metacognitive activities embedded - modeling, scaffolding, and taking turns. Heuristic methods for mathematical problem solving (Alan Schoenfeld, 1983, 85, 91) - modeling, coaching, and scaffolding Summer 2001 Mara Alagic

All New Learning Involves Transfer Building on existing knowledge Understanding conceptual change Transfer and cultural practices Between school and everyday life Metacognitive approach This principle that people learn by using what they know to construct new understandings has a number of implications for educational practices. Building on existing knowledge - Without specific guidance from teachers, students may fail to connect everyday knowledge to subjects taught in school. Understanding conceptual change Transfer and cultural practices (difference in narrative between anglo- and african- american) Transfer between school and everyday life Metacognitive approach Summer 2001 Mara Alagic