© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Chapter 1: Basic Concepts and Methods This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

An Introduction to Human Development Age-related changes in: Behavior Thinking Emotion Personality An entire lifespan! © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Philosophical Roots Original Sin Saint Augustine Humans are born selfish Addresses moral dimensions of development The Christian notion of original sin teaches that children are born with a selfish nature and must be spiritually reborn. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Philosophical and Scientific Roots Innate Goodness Jean-Jacques Rousseau Emphasis on children and basic human nature Children need only nurturance and protection to flower Deprivation leads to frustration and anger French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau also believed in the idea of interaction between internal and external forces, but he claimed that all human beings are naturally good and seek out experiences that help them grow. For Rousseau, the goal of human development was to achieve one’s inborn potential. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Philosophical and Scientific Roots The Blank Slate John Locke Empiricism Children passive recipients of experience Individual differences due to experience John Locke, who insisted that at birth the mind is a blank slate—in Latin, a tabula rasa. All knowledge, he argued, is created by experience. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Early Scientific Theories Charles Darwin Evolution Interplay of genetics and environmental adaptation Baby biographies Detailed records of own children’s early years Darwin–baby biographies; The concept of developmental stages. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Early Scientific Theories G. Stanley Hall Psychologist Emphasis on norms or average ages at which developmental milestones occur Arnold Gesell Maturation—occurs “naturally” Used movie cameras, one-way mirrors © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

The Lifespan Perspective Paul Baltes Important changes occur in each period of development Adults experience major life passages Parenthood Retirement Increased longevity Now about age 76 for U.S. adults Paul Baltes – capacity for positive change – plasticity; positive aspects of advanced age; development of strategies to maximize gains and compensate for losses. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

The Lifespan Perspective Paul Baltes Interpret change in context of one’s culture or subculture Plasticity and adaptability at all ages Interdisciplinary perspective and research Multi-contextual nature As we age, use strategies to maximize gain and compensate for losses © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Domains and Periods of Development Physical Domain Cognitive Domain Social Domain Using domain classifications helps to organize discussions of human development. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Periods of Development Prenatal Infancy Early Childhood Middle Childhood Adolescence Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Key Issues in the Study of Human Development Nature versus Nurture Nature Inborn propensities; biological influences Inborn biases Nurture Learning from environmental experiences Internal models of experience Nature versus nurture, also referred to as heredity versus environment or nativism versus empiricism. Picture of John Watson – early behaviorist that exemplifies the nurture arguments. As Watson put it, Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, merchant, chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, abilities, vocations, and the race of his ancestors. (1930, p. 104) © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Continuity versus Discontinuity Quantitative change (in amount or degree) Discontinuity Development involves reorganization Qualitative changes in kind or type Emergence of wholly new strategies, qualities, or skills (qualitative change) Stage theories Qualitatively distinct periods of development © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Qualitative changes in kind or type Three Kinds of Change Qualitative changes in kind or type Normative age-graded universal changes Physical such as puberty Social clock or age norms such as expected time of retirement Normative history graded changes Cohort or generational effects Non-normative changes Unique, unshared changes or individual differences Group specific changes are shared by all individuals who group up together in a particular group such as culture with its system of customs, values, attitudes, laws, moral guidelines and ways of living. Historical context examines which historical forces shape the similarities and differences that affect each generation. Individual differences – include genetics; timing and critical periods; on-time and off-time events; atypical development. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Contexts of Development Vulnerability and Resilience Vulnerabilities and protective factors interact with child’s environment Same environment can affect different children differently Effect depends on qualities the child brings to the interaction Resilient children gain support from more optimal environments © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Contexts of Development Critical period Sensitive period On-time events When most members of a society experience events such as marriage Off-time events Atypical development Mental retardation, psychopathology © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Questions To Ponder Now that you have heard several issues, which do you think is more important in understanding development – nature issues or nurture issues? Why? What part of the life span interests you the most? What issues would you like to learn about the most? These questions would be good for general discussion, use with small groups, or writing assignments.  As writing assignments, students who are given choices to write about display more intrinsic motivation.  Students can write about one or more questions per chapter and writings can be kept in a journal for collections at later times in the semester rather than on a daily or weekly basis.  They may also serve as part of participation grades in the class. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Research Methods and Designs Theories Sets of statements that propose general principles of development Predictions or Hypotheses An educated guess that is testable by data collection and analysis Theories – sets of statements that propose general principles of development. Hypothesis – an educated guess that is testable by data collection. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

The Goals of Developmental Science Describe development Explain development Why events and changes occur Predict developmental events Influence some developmental outcomes For example: memory declines © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Descriptive Methods Variables Characteristics that vary across people EXAMPLE: years of age One variable can relate to another variable EXAMPLE: years of age with memory decline © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Descriptive Methods Naturalistic observations Observe people in their normal environments Includes schools or assisted living facilities Could harbor observer biases © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Descriptive Methods Case Studies In-depth examination of a single individual Useful in making decisions about individuals Frequently basis of important hypotheses about unusual developmental events Laboratory observations Controlled setting for study © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Descriptive Methods Surveys, interviews and questionnaires Ask people questions and record their answers Use samples Subsets of a total collection (population) of people People’s answers may be affected by perceived social desirability © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Correlations Correlations range from -1.00 to +1.00 Describe strength of relationship between two variables A “0” means two variables are not related Positive correlation High scores on one variable usually accompany high scores on the other Better educated people generally have higher family incomes Negative correlation Scores on the two variables move in opposite directions: Better educated people are less likely to smoke cigarettes © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Limits of Correlations Correlation is NOT causality Correlations simply measure the level or degree of covariation between two variables They do not prove causal relationships A large correlation between two variables does NOT mean one variable caused the other © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Experimental Designs Can test causal hypotheses Randomly assign participants to different treatment and control groups The experimental group gets a treatment the experimenter thinks will produce a particular effect The “control group” gets no treatment or neutral treatment © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Experimental Designs (continued) Independent variable or “cause” Dependent variable or “effect” The dependent variable depends on the “cause” Quasi-experiments Participants not randomly assigned For example, children in day care programs may be compared with children kept at home © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Cross-Sectional Designs Designs to Study Age-Related Changes Cross-Sectional Designs In these designs, we study people from different age groups at the same time point, such as July 2008 Cross-sectional research very useful because it is relatively quick to do It can indicate possible age differences or age changes But age-related differences may become confused with cohort or generational effects Cohort – age-related differences due to grouping by age. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Birth Cohort or Generational Effects Different generations can have unique experiences Your generation grew up with computers 100 years ago people didn’t have radio Your great-grandparents may have lived through World War Two or the 1930s Great Depression When (and where) you were born could affect nutrition, sleeping arrangements, or your age at marriage In cross-sectional studies or “one-shot”, cohort and aging effects may become entangled © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Figure 1.1 An Example of a Cross-Sectional Design © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes Longitudinal Designs Study the same individuals over a period of time Can observe individual consistencies and inconsistencies Assess net change over time in the same people Some studies last for several years The Berkeley/Oakland Growth Study continued for several decades Sequential Designs – allow for comparison of cohorts while incorporating some degree of individual differences. Age-group comparisons provide the same kind of information as a cross-sectional study would. Comparisons of the scores or behaviors of participants in each group to their own scores or behaviors at an earlier testing point provide longitudinal evidence at the same time. Sequential designs also allow for comparisons of cohorts. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Longitudinal Designs: Some Problems “Practice” or “testing” effects can occur when people are repeatedly studied Study “attrition” People die, move away, stop participating Better educated, healthier people more often remain in the study This can create biases in studying aging © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Figure 1.2 Example of a Longitudinal Design Cohort – age-related differences due to grouping by age. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes Sequential Designs These combine groups from at least two cohorts followed in a longitudinal study Both aging AND cohort effects are possible Allows comparison of cohorts while incorporating some degree of individual differences Sequential Designs – allow for comparison of cohorts while incorporating some degree of individual differences. Age-group comparisons provide the same kind of information as a cross-sectional study would. Comparisons of the scores or behaviors of participants in each group to their own scores or behaviors at an earlier testing point provide longitudinal evidence at the same time. Sequential designs also allow for comparisons of cohorts. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Figure 1.3 An Example of a Cross-Sequential Design © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

Cross-Cultural Research Ethnographies In-depth descriptions of a single culture or context May compare two or more cultures or subcultures Perhaps particular age or ethnic groups Cross-cultural studies search for universal and unique developmental changes Hope to improve people’s lives EXAMPLE: encourage more cooperation by learning from collectivist cultures © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Research Ethics Protection of animal rights and human subjects Universities, government, organizations often have Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) Often called “Human Subjects Committees” Special attention paid to studies of children, pregnant women, individuals with learning or other disabilities © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Research Ethics Protection from harm—We protect participants from harm Informed Consent—participants learn possible risks and benefits of the study to them Confidentiality—Research data is kept confidential Knowledge of Result—Participants are given information about results Deception—Any deception is explained to participants after data are collected An experiment is a research method that tests a causal hypothesis. A key feature of an experiment is that participants are assigned randomly to participate in one of several groups. The experimental group receive the treatment the experimenter thinks will produce a particular effect. The control group receive either no special treatment or a neutral treatment. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers