1. CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
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2. I. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
I. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of age-related changes in behaviour, thinking, emotion, and personality
Many Western beliefs about human development are based on philosophers' explanations for differences they observed in individuals of different ages
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3. CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
A. Philosophical Roots
Christian doctrine of original sin
Jean-Jacques Rousseau claimed that all humans have innate goodness
John Locke proposed that the mind of a child is a blank slate
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4. B. The Study of Human Development Becomes a Science
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
B. The Study of Human Development Becomes a Science
Charles Darwin understood the development of the human species by studying child development
G. Stanley Hall identified norms, the average ages at which milestones happen
Arnold Gesell suggested the existence of a genetically programmed sequential pattern of change
Jean Piaget described 4 stages in the development of logical thinking between birth and adolescence
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5. Development in the Real World: Toys Are More Than Just Playthings
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Development in the Real World: Toys Are More Than Just Playthings
A vital element of children’s development today is centred on playing with toys
Toy designers create many toys to promote children’s physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development
The Canadian Toy Testing Council (CTTC) conducts ongoing research to ensure that toys are age-appropriate, safe, perform as they should, appealing, useful, and durable as well as to suggest potential improvements
Toys should challenge and stimulate based on a child’s chronological age; labels provide guidelines for parents
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6. C. A Brief History of the Roots of Psychology in Canada
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
C. A Brief History of the Roots of Psychology in Canada
The first psychology courses (moral philosophy) in Canada were taught at Dalhousie University in 1838
In 1925 William Blatz opened the St. George’s School for Child Study in Toronto which is now a part of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE)
The Canadian Psychological Association was founded in 1939
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7. II. CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
II. CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Developmental psychology has changed in the following three ways since the early days:
The term development now encompasses the entire human lifespan
Developmentalists have come to understand that inborn characteristics interact with environmental factors in complex ways
The pioneers thought of change almost exclusively in terms of norms, while today’s developmentalists view norms as representing only one kind of change
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8. A. The Lifespan Perspective
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
A. The Lifespan Perspective
Psychologists’ views of adulthood have changed for the following reasons:
Developmental psychology has become more interdisciplinary, incorporating research in other sciences such as anthropology, sociology, and biology
Adults more commonly go through major life changes, like divorce and career shifts, resulting in stage models of development that include adult phases
Stage models view development as comprising periods of stability punctuated by periods of transition throughout the lifespan
Significant increases in life expectancy have occurred in the industrialized world
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9. B. The Domains of Development
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
B. The Domains of Development
Age-related changes across the lifespan can be classified in 3 broad categories
Physical Domain
Includes changes in size, shape and characteristics of the body
Cognitive Domain
Includes changes in thinking, memory, problem-solving and other intellectual skills
Social Domain
Includes changes in variables associated with the relationship of an individual to others
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10. C. Nature and Nurture Interact in Development
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
C. Nature and Nurture Interact in Development
Early developmentalists thought of change as resulting from inside the person (nature) or outside the person (nurture)
This view of internal verses external influences on development was termed nature vs. nurture
Today an interactionist model, respecting the complex interactions of nature and nurture, is more common
(continued)
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11. Nature and Nurture Interact in Development (continued)
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Nature and Nurture Interact in Development (continued)
Vulnerability versus Resilience
Vulnerabilities and protective factors interact with the child’s environment
The same environment can have quite different effects
The effect depends on the qualities the child brings to the interaction
Combining a highly vulnerable child and a poor environment produces the most negative outcome
Either condition alone – a vulnerable child or a poor environment – can be overcome
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12. D. Continuity and Discontinuity in Development
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
D. Continuity and Discontinuity in Development
Continuity
Age-related change (development) is quantitative (a change in amount or degree)
Discontinuity
Age-related change (development) is qualitative (changes in type or kind)
Development involves reorganization
Emergence of wholly new strategies, qualities, or skills
Stage theories
(continued)
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13. Continuity and Discontinuity in Development (continued)
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Continuity and Discontinuity in Development (continued)
Universal changes are common to every individual in a species and are linked to specific ages.
Social clock is a set of age norms
Ageism can lead to prejudicial behaviour directed toward older adults
Note: Canadian Oxford dictionary defines ageism as “prejudice or discrimination on the grounds of age” so students may find this term used elsewhere to describe discrimination against ANY age.
(continued)
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14. Continuity and Discontinuity in Development (continued)
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Continuity and Discontinuity in Development (continued)
Group-specific changes are shared by all individuals in a particular group growing up together
Cohort describes groups of individuals born within some fairly narrow band of years who share the same historical experiences at the same times in their lives
(continued)
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15. Continuity and Discontinuity in Development (continued)
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Continuity and Discontinuity in Development (continued)
Individual Changes result from unique, unshared events
Critical period: there may be specific periods in development when an organism is especially sensitive to the presence (or absence) of some particular kind of experience
Sensitive period: a span of months or years during which a child may be particularly influenced by the presence (or absence) of some particular kind of experience
Atypical development - deviation from a typical, or “normal,” developmental pathway in a direction that is harmful to an individual
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16. III. RESEARCH DESIGNS AND METHODS
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
III. RESEARCH DESIGNS AND METHODS
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17. A. Relating Goals to Methods
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
A. Relating Goals to Methods
Developmental psychology uses the scientific method to achieve the following four goals to study human development from conception to death:
To describe development is simply to state what happens.
To explain development involves telling why a particular event occurs.
To predict development, researchers test hypotheses.
To influence development is to modify the behaviour in some way.
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18. B. Studying Age-Related Changes
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
B. Studying Age-Related Changes
In cross-sectional designs, groups of subjects are selected at each of a series of ages.
Longitudinal designs follow the same individual over a period of time.
A sequential design begins with at least two age groups. Investigators then test each group over a number of years with two types of comparisons:
age-group comparisons
comparisons of each group to itself at an earlier testing point
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19. Cross-Sectional Designs
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Cross-Sectional Designs
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20. CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Longitudinal Designs
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21. CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Sequential Designs
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22. COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGNS
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGNS
Advantages of Cross-Sectional
Gathers large amount of data in short time
Establishes norms
Immediate comparisons of cohorts
Saves person power
Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional
Confounds age with cohort
Fails to gather information on individual patterns of development
(continued)
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23. COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGNS
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGNS
Advantages of Longitudinal
Information on the stability of behaviour is acquired
Establishes patterns of individual growth and change
Detects effects of earlier events on development
Disadvantages of Longitudinal
Imposes inflexibility
Is costly in terms of person power
Takes a long time to get data
Attrition from study is common
Shows time-of-measurement effects
(continued)
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24. COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGNS (continued)
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
COMPARISON OF DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGNS (continued)
Advantage of Sequential
Makes use of multiple cohorts of same age
Disadvantage of Sequential
Varies; it depends on type of design.
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25. C. Identifying Relationships between Variables
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
C. Identifying Relationships between Variables
Variables are characteristics that vary from person to person such as physical size, intelligence, and personality. When two or more variables vary together, we say there is a relationship between them
Case studies are in-depth examinations of single individuals
When psychologists use the naturalistic observation method, they observe people in their normal environments
Surveys involve the use of interviews and/or questionnaires
(continued)
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26. Identifying Relationships between Variables (continued)
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Identifying Relationships between Variables (continued)
Correlations
A correlation is a number ranging from to that describes the strength of a relationship between two variables
A correlation of zero indicates that there is no relationship between those variables
A positive correlation means that high scores on one variable are usually accompanied by high scores on the other. The closer a positive correlation is to +1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables
(continued)
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27. Identifying Relationships between Variables (continued)
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Identifying Relationships between Variables (continued)
Correlations (continued)
Two variables that move in opposite directions result in a negative correlation, and the nearer the correlation is to -1.00, the more strongly the two are connected
Correlations have a major limitation:
they do not tell us about causal relationships. In order to identify causes, we have to carry out experiments
(continued)
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28. Scatter Plots of Three Correlations
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Scatter Plots of Three Correlations
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29. Identifying Relationships between Variables (continued)
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Identifying Relationships between Variables (continued)
Experiments
An experiment is a study that tests a causal hypothesis—something causes something to happen
A key feature of an experiment is that subjects are assigned randomly to participate in one of several groups—chance determines the group in which the researcher places each subject
(continued)
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30. Identifying Relationships between Variables (continued)
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Identifying Relationships between Variables (continued)
Experiments (continued)
Subjects in the experimental group receive the treatment the researcher thinks will produce a particular effect, while those in the control group receive either no treatment or a neutral treatment
The presumed causal element in the experiment is called the independent variable and the behaviour on which the independent variable is expected to show its effect is called a dependent variable
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31. D. Cross-Cultural Research
CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
D. Cross-Cultural Research
Studies comparing cultures or contexts
An ethnography is a detailed description of a single culture or context based on extensive observation
Compare two or more cultures (or subcultures) directly by testing children or adults in each of several cultures with the same or comparable measures.
Cross-cultural research is important to developmental psychology for the following two reasons:
It identifies universal changes
It identifies specific variables that explain cultural differences
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32. CHAPTER ONE: BASIC CONCEPTS AND METHODS
E. Research Ethics
Guidelines researchers follow to protect the rights of animals and humans who participate in studies. Some common guidelines include:
Protection from harm
Informed consent
Confidentiality
Knowledge of results
Deception, if used, must be explained fully
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