1 Two uses of sea: 海洋的兩個用途： 1. Communications 交通 2. Resources (fish, oil, etc.) 資源﹝魚產、石油等﹞ Early European colonialist claimed sea as territory 初時歐洲殖民者聲稱海洋是領土 Law of the Sea, Air and Outer Space 海洋、航空和太空法律

2 Grotius said seas are res communis (common thing) of humanity Grotius 說海洋是人類的共有財産 Spoke of “freedom of sea”: unrestricted navigation, fishery and scientific research 有說「海洋自由」 : 無限制的航海、捕漁和科学探索

3 Today also includes “freedom of immersion,” i.e. right to lay submarine cables & oil pipelines 今日還包括「內載自由」，即舖設海底電纜和油管 Main restriction on freedom of seas is that vessels are subject to jurisdiction of flag state 海洋自由的主要限制是指船艦的管轄權是根據其所懸掛的國旗而 定 No ship may bear state‘s flag without its permission 沒有船只可在沒有國家的許可情況下懸掛該國的國旗 Should be “genuine link” between flag state and ship 國旗與船應是「真正關聯」的 States now proclaim parts of seas as their “maritime belts” or territorial seas 現在國家宣稱部分海洋是其 “ 領海帶 ” 或領海

4 Internal waters have connection with land territory, e.g. harbours, lakes, rivers, etc. 內海與國界是有聯繫的，例如港灣、湖泊、河流等 No right of innocent passage through internal waters 在內水不適用 無害通過權 Question of whether bays are internal waters is much disputed 海灣是不是內海是很有爭議性的問題 State may draw straight line across mouth of bay to seal it off where bay entrance not more than 24 miles 國家可能在海灣口畫不長於 24 公里的直線，以劃出海灣 Where bay is "historic," state may enclose all of it 當海灣是「歷史性」時，國家便可把它整個佔有

5 Question of internal waters also important concerning archipelagos 內海問題對於群島也是十分重要的 Dealt with in detail in UN Law of the Sea Convention (signed 1982; came into force 1994) 詳細見於《聯合國海洋法公約》﹝簽定於 1982 年，於 1994 年生效﹞ Territorial seas that are not internal are also part of states that they border 領海並非內海，但也是國家的範圍 Bynkershock in 1702 said states owned seas off their shores to a distance of cannon shot, i.e. 3 miles Bynkershock 於 1702 年表示國家擁有離岸至一定大炮射程的海域， 即三英里

6 Under 1982 Convention, state can claim 12 mile territorial sea, from baseline at low-water mark 依 1982 年的公約，國家可以宣稱擁由低潮點開始至外有 十二英里的領海範圍 In some places, 12 mile limit makes open sea disappear, e.g. English Channel, Bosporus 有一些地方 ，十二英里的距离令公海消失，例如英倫海 峽和博斯普魯斯海峽 Transit passage allows ships to pass through such channels 運輸航道可使船隻通過這些海峽

7 English Channel

8 Where state‘s coastline indented or many islands, hard to set 12 mile limit, e.g. in Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case (1951) 當國家海岸線呈踞齒形或有很多離島時，便難於設定十二 英里限制，例如 1951 年的英國挪威漁業案﹝ 1951 ﹞ Norway used straight baselines linking outermost parts of its coastal islands 挪威用直基線聯起沿岸島嶼的最外部分 Enclosed much of what would have been high seas; UK objected ； ICJ upheld Norway’s method on basis of realism and simplicity 包括了許多以前的公海部分；英國反對；國際法院 出於現 實主義和簡約的考虑， 認為挪威的方法

9 Norwegian coastline

10 Coastal states also may claim contiguous zones: waters beyond territorial seas where state may enforce customs, tax, immigration, sanitary laws 沿海國家可宣稱有毗連區：領海以外國家執行關稅、稅項、 移民、衛生法律的区域 Contiguous zones may extend to point 24 miles from low water mark of littoral state 毗連區可伸展自沿海岸的低潮點起二十四英里的地方 Beyond contiguous zones, there are exclusive economic zones (EEZ‘s) 毗連區以外有專屬經濟區 Up to 200 miles from baseline; mainly used to protect fishing and to claim undersea mineral resources 基線二百公里以內，主要用來保護捕漁業和海底礦物資源

11 About half of world‘s states claim EEZs. 大約世界上一半的國家宣稱擁有專屬經濟區 Historically, some rights in high seas exist 由于历史原因，有些公海權利存在 Examples: 例如： 1. belligerent state may board on high seas neutral state vessel carrying goods to enemy 一、如果公海中立國船隻载有運给敵人的货物，交戰國可能 就可能占领 2. jurisdiction of injured state over foreign vessel that does injury on high seas 二、如果一国的船隻在公海受到損害，受損國拥有管轄權

12 Some states claim that they can exercise jurisdiction outside maritime belt over vessels that are threat to sovereignty or security 有些國家要求向領海以外危害主權或安全的船艦行使管轄權 Examples: US and Haitian refugees ； Canada and Spanish fishing fleet 例如：美國和海地難民；加拿大和西班牙捕漁船隊 Also movement of less developed states to proclaim seabed of high seas "common heritage of humanity" 同時，發展中國家也有提倡公海海床是「人類共有的遺產」

13 Developed states have sought free development of seabed 發達國家曾試求自由开發海床 Under 1982 Convention, there are rights to exploit continental shelf, ledge that extends from land into sea at shallow depths 依 1982 年的公約，有權開發大陸架和淺水区陸地伸展到海洋的 暗礁 Continental shelves make up 7-8% of ocean areas 大陸架組成百分之七至八的海洋部分 Under 1982 Convention, some exploitation of continental shelf beyond 200 mile limit is OK 據 1982 年的公約，超出大陸架约二百英里以外的開發是可以接 受的

14 Developed states have sought free development of seabed

15 In deep seabed there is much manganese, copper, nickel, cobalt 在海床深處有大量錳、銅、鎳、鈷 If these are mined by developed countries, then poorer countries will lose market share 如果它們由發達國家開採，貧窮國家便會失去市場份額 Under 1982 Convention, there is International Seabed Authority 據 1982 年的公約，設立了「國際海床当局」 Supposed to provide equitable sharing of benefits of seabed 假設它会公平分配海床的利益

16 development of seabed

17 One area of seabed is to be set aside for commercial exploitation 海床的一部分被界定給商業開發 Another area is to be property of Seabed Authority itself 另一部分則属于國際海床当局 There is also issue of preserving maritime environment. Many specific treaties 保存海洋環境亦是另一問題。有許多具體條約 Under 1982 Convention, states must ensure that their courts can be used to provide relief for persons damaged by pollution of sea environment 在 1982 年公約之下，國家必須確保法院可向受到海洋環境污 染影響的人士提供援助

18 Law of the air, like law of the sea, concerned with state sovereignty 像海洋法一样，空間法和國家的主權有關 When manned flight appeared, states disagreed about who owned superjacent air 自人類的航空旅程出現，國家便對上空的擁有權爭議不休 French view: freedom of the air 法國的觀點：天空的自由 British view: rule usque ad coelum (“use to heaven”) of air rights 英國的觀點：由絕對土地權利衍生的空間權利

19 British view confirmed in World War I because of need to protect against bombing 英國人的觀點在第一次世界大戰中被確認，因為有預防空襲 的需要 Basic rule became that aircraft may only cross state‘s airspace with its permission 基本規則成为航空器只有獲得某國許可才能飛越其領空 Paris Convention of 1919 modified this rule slightly 1919 年《巴黎公約》略改了這規則 aircraft not part of scheduled service have right of innocent passage 若不是定期航班，航空器擁有無害通過權

20 Convention provided for aircraft registration, certificates of airworthiness, aircrew licenses, rules of traffic control 公約规定了航空器登記、適航證書、空勤人員執照、交通控 制規例 1929 Warsaw Convention on International Carriage by Air set up limits of civil liability for death or injury of passengers 1929 年《華沙國際空運公約》設有乘客傷亡民事賠償的規 限 Airline not liable if it has taken all measures needed to avoid damage 航空公司若已採取所有防止損害的措施，它便不需要負責 1944 Civil Aviation Conference called by US to obtain transcontinental landing rights 1944 年，美國召開民航會議，要求獲得跨大陸登陸權

21 US wanted “5 freedoms” 美國想获得五項自由 1. to fly across foreign territory 飛越外國領土 2. to land for non-traffic purposes 以非交通事由登陸 3. to disembark in foreign country, traffic picked up in home country 本國登航，外國卸載 4. to pick up in foreign country, traffic destined for home country 外國登航，本國卸載 5. to carry traffic between two foreign countries. 交通往返於兩外國

22 Most states agreed only to first two and signed International Air Services Transit Agreement. 大部分國家只同意前兩項，並且簽定《國際航空交通服務運 輸協定》 Few states embodied all 5 freedoms in Air Transport Agreement 少部分國家在《空運協定》中使五項自由具體化 1944 Conference drew up treaty covering air law, operations codes, rules for personnel, health and safety 1944 年會議訂出有關航空法、執行手則、人事規則和健康安 全手則的條約 Also set up International Civil Aviation Organization, UN agency 另外設立「國際民航組織」，一個隸屬聯合國的組織

23 Concentrates on air safety 專注於航空安全 International Air Transport Association (IATC) is organization of world‘s airlines. 「國際航空運輸協會」是全球航運公司的組織 Concentrates on setting fares 專注於釐定費用 1944 Conference decided that air cabotage or internal air traffic may be reserved to each state 1944 年會議決定國內空運權由各國保留

24 State aircraft have no right to fly over or land in territory of any other state. 國家航空器無權飛越或登陸另一國家的領土 States must not discriminate among other states in right to use airspace 眾國在使用領空的權利上不可有差別地對待其它國家 1944 Conference failed to settle many questions; still no multilateral agreement on air rights 1944 年會議未能解決很多問題；至今仍無有關空間權利的多 邊條約 Many bilateral agreements between states. Model is 1946 Bermuda Agreement between US and UK 各國之間有許多雙邊協定。美國和英國之間的 1946 年《百慕 達協定》便是一個模範

25 Bilateral agreements generally involve negotiations about the other three freedoms 雙邊協定一般涉及其他三項自由的磋商 Many other problems remain, including hijaking, downing of civilian aircraft 很多其他的問題仍在，包括劫機、民航客機坠落 Besides aircraft traffic, law of air deals with other air- related subjects 除了航空交通，空間法還處理其他空間事宜 Every state may prevent its airspace from being traversed by injurious radio or TV waves 各國防止損害性的電波或電視微波通過其領空

26 Every state must prevent its territory from being used to transmit waves that injure others 各國必須防止其領土被利用作發送傷害其他國家的電波 States have sought ban testing of nuclear weapons in atmosphere through Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963 眾國已透過 1963 年《全面禁止核子試驗條約》要求禁止在大 氣層中進行核武試驗 No treaties about rain-making 無關於造雨的條約 Problem of radiation drift 輻射擴散問題

27 Problem of release of chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) creating “greenhouse effect” endangering ozone layer CFCs 排放的问题，造成「溫室效應」，損害臭氧層 1985 Convention for Protection of the Ozone Layer aimed to reduce consumption of CFCs 1985 年《保護臭氧層維也納公約》旨在減少 CFCs 的使用 Idea of International Law of Atmosphere treaty, modelled after Law of the Sea Convention of 1982 《國際大氣層法條約》的觀念，根據 1982 年《聯合國海洋法 公約》之模式 Law of outerspace modifies rule of usque ad coelum: airspace is not property of state to unlimited height 外層空間法修改了絕對所有權論點：空間不是無高度限制的 國家财產

28 Greenhouse effect

29 Sovereignty of states over airspace limited to point where air meets space. Question is where boundary lies 國家對領空的主權範圍是到大氣層與太空連接之處。 問題是範圍是怎樣界定的 Some thought it was as low as 50 miles, but aircraft can fly that high 有人認為應低至五十英里，但航空器能夠在這高度飛行 Satellites can orbit as low as 110 kilometers, so scholars now think that might be right limit 衛星可在低至 110 千米高的軌道運行，所以學者現在認為這可 能是適當的限制 States don't want to concede such a low limit, so no treaty 眾國不想接受這麼低的限制，所以沒有簽約

30 Outer space is res communis and may be explored by all 外層空間是共有財産，全部人均可開發 1967 Outer Space Treaty provides that states may not orbit or station in outer space nuclear or other weapons of mass destruction 1967 年的《 外層空間條例》提出國家不可在外層空間 放置核武或其 他大規模殺傷性武器 Some scholars argue that this treaty bans all military activity in space. 有些學者認為這條約禁止所有的太空軍事活動

31 US argued that its “Star Wars” program of the 1980s was legal because it included only anti-ballistic missle system 美國爭辯說 1980 年的「星球大戰」計劃是合法的，因為它只 是包括反彈道導彈系統 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects 1972 年《空間實體造成損失的國際責任公約》 States strictly liable for any damage from their space objects that strike the Earth or aircraft 國家對它們任何的空間實體擊中地球或航空器所造成的損害 負嚴格責任 Fault liability as to all other damage, e.g. to other space objects 對其他所有損害負過錯責任，比如損害其他太空實體

32 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space 《關於登記射入外太空物體的公約》 UN receives data on all spacecraft 聯合國有关于所有太空船的資料 Agreement on Rescue of Astronauts 《拯救太空人協定》 1979 Moon Treaty bans military personnel from Moon and other celestial bodies for non-peaceful purposes 1979 年《月球條約》禁止軍人爲非和平目的抵達月球或者 其他天體 No rights of private ownership over moon or its resources 不存在對月球或其資源的私有權

33 spacecraft

34 spacecraft

35 Many international telecommunications satellite (INTELSAT) agreements 有很多國際性電訊衛星通訊的協議 Implemented by International Telecommunications Union, but much work done by US COMSAT corporation 是由「國際電訊聯盟」執行，但是大部分工作都是美國通訊 衛星公司所做的 Disputes about allocation of radio wave frequencies and broadcasts, via satellite, to unwilling states 對電台通過衛星的微波頻道和傳播有爭議，因為有的國家不 願意 UN has Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. 聯合國設有「和平利用 外層空間 委員會」

36 UNESCO has adopted 1972 Declaration that states must obtain prior consent to broadcast from satellites to other states 聯合國教科文組織通過了 1972 年的聲明， 一國的衛星傳播到其他國家前必須获得同意 In 1983, in “Principles,” UNESCO tried to implement Declaration. Most Western states voted against 1983 年，原則上，聯合國教科文組織嘗試執行聲明。大部分 西方國家投票反對 Remote sensing also controversial. Question is whether prior consent of observed state is required 遙距感應也有爭議。問題在於是否需要获得被觀察國家的事 前同意

37 Some states, e.g. France, also argue that states should not be required to share data gathered by satellite 有些國家，例如法國，認為不應要求各國分享由衛星得來的 資料 US argues that there should be freedom of information 美國爭辯說應有資訊自由 Controversy over geostationary orbit, where satellites circle at same speed as Earth‘s rotation 對同步軌道有爭議，究竟衛星轉動的速度應否與地球的相同。 Equatorial states in Bogota Declaration of 1975 claimed geostationary orbit as part of their territory 赤道國家在 1975 年《波哥大宣言》中聲稱同步軌道是其領土 的一部分

38 geostationary orbit