Process Versus Need-Based Theories of Motivation Reflect a content perspective. Try to list specific things that motivate behavior. specific things that motivate behavior. Process-Based Theories Focus on how motivated behavior occurs. Explain how people go about satisfying their needs. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Equity Theory of Motivation Based on the relatively simple premise that people in organizations want to be treated fairly. Equity The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others. Inequity The belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Forming Equity Perceptions People in organizations form perceptions of the equity of their treatment through a four-step process. Step 1 A person evaluates how he or she is being treated by the firm. Step 2 The person forms a perception of how a “comparison other” is being treated. Step 3 The person compares his or her own circumstances with those of the comparison other. Step 4 On the strength of this feeling, the person may choose to pursue one or more alternatives. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Equity Comparison Process Equity theory describes the equity comparison process in terms of an outcome-to-input ratio. Outcomes (self) Inputs (self) Outcomes (other) Inputs (other) compared with Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity figure 6.1 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Evaluations and Implications Research findings support predictions of equity theory for responses to inequity. Equity theory offers managers three messages: Everyone in the organization needs to understand the bases for rewards. People tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they perceive and experience a variety of rewards, some tangible and others intangible. People base their actions on their perceptions of reality. IS IT CULTURE BOUND? IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER CULTURES? Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation The Basic Expectancy Model Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it. Effort-to-Performance Expectancy A person’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to successful performance. Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy A person’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain (desired) outcomes. Outcomes and Valences The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (valence) of a particular outcome (reward that results from performance) to a person. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation figure 6.2 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Porter-Lawler Model The model predicts that satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for high-level performance. figure 6.3 Reference: Figure from Porter, Lyman W., and Edward E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Copyright © 1968. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Inc. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Evaluation and Implications Research studies have confirmed: The association of both kinds of expectancies and valences with performance and outcomes. That motivated behavior by people arises from their valuing expected rewards, believing effort will lead to performance, and that performance will lead to desired rewards. That expectancy theory explains motivation in the U.S. better than elsewhere. What is its applicability in other cultures? IS IT APPLICABLE IN OTHER CULTURES? WOULD IT APPLY HERE? Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Guidelines for the Use of Expectancy Theory Practical use of the theory by managers: Determine the primary outcome each employee wants. Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals. Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible. Link desired outcomes and desired performance. Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations. Make sure the rewards are large enough. Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Learning and Motivation A relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience. The Traditional View: Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus. The Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process Learning is a cognitive process that involves conscious and active behavior. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Learning as a Cognitive Process Prior learning influences our behavioral choices. The perceived consequences of those choices become in turn a part of learning and affect future behavioral choices. figure 6.4 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Reinforcement Theory and Learning Based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior that results in pleasant consequences (reward) is likely to be repeated. Behavior that results in unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Types of Reinforcement in Organizations Positive Reinforcement Avoidance (Negative Reinforcement) Extinction Punishment Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Types of Reinforcement in Organizations Positive Reinforcement A reward or other desirable consequence that follows behavior Avoidance (Negative Reinforcement) Also known as negative reinforcement; rather than receiving a reward following a desirable behavior, the person is given the opportunity to avoid an unpleasant consequence Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Types of Reinforcement in Organizations Extinction Decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows that behavior. Punishment An unpleasant, or aversive, consequence that results from behavior. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Kinds of Reinforcement Positive reinforcement and avoidance can be used to motivate desired behaviors by employees. figure 6.5 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Kinds of Reinforcement Extinction and punishment can be used to change undesired employee figure 6.5 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Schedules of Reinforcement in Organizations Schedule of Reinforcement Nature of Reinforcement Continuous Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. Fixed-Interval Behavior is reinforced according to some predetermined constant schedule based on time. Variable-Interval Behavior is reinforced after periods of time, but the time span varies from one time to the next. Fixed-Ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, with the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement held constant. Variable-Ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, but the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement varies from one time to the next. table 6.1 Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Organizational Behavior Modification Behavior Modification in Organizations Organizational behavior modification (OB mod) is the application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings. Reinforcement theory says that the frequency of desirable behaviors can be increased by linking those behaviors with positive consequences. Behavior modification uses positive reinforcement to encourage desirable behavior in employees. Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Organizational Behavior Modification The Effectiveness of Behavior Modification Has not always been 100% effective in every workplace application. Managers frequently have only limited means for providing meaningful reinforcement for their employees. Laboratory research is hard to generalize to the real world. Behavior modification may be effective for a limited time. The impact of the positive reinforcement wanes and employees come to view it as a routine part of the compensation system. The Ethics of OB MOD OB mod may compromise individual freedom of choice. OB mod may be considered managerial manipulation. Is it CULTURE BOUND? Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.