5-1 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley SPORT IN SOCIETY: ISSUES & CONTROVERSIES IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND CHAPTER 5 SPORTS AND CHILDREN: Are Organised Programs Worth the Effort?

5-2 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Origins and Development of Organised Youth Sports Organised youth sports emerged in the 20 th Century. The first programs focused on “masculinising” boys. Organised youth sports grew rapidly in many industrialised countries after World War II. Programs emphasized competition as preparation for future occupational success. Girls’ interests generally were ignored.

5-3 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Social Changes Related to the Growth of Organised Youth Sports Increase in families with both parents working outside the home. New definitions of what it means to be a “good parent”. Growing belief that informal activities provide occasions for kids to get into trouble. Growing belief that the world is a dangerous place for children. Increased visibility of high-performance and professional sports in society.

5-4 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Major Trends in Youth Sports Today Organised programs have become increasingly privatised. Organised programs increasingly emphasize the “performance ethic”. An increased in elite training facilities. Increased involvement and concerns among parents. Increased participation in “alternative sports”.

5-5 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Privatisation of Organised Programs Growth is associated with the decline in publicly funded programs. Most common in middle- and upper-middle income areas –May reproduce economic and ethnic inequalities in society. May not be committed to gender equity –Private programs are not accountable in the same way as public programs.

5-6 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley The “Performance Ethic” Refers to emphasising measured outcomes as indicators of the quality of sport experiences. Fun = becoming better Emphasized in private programs. Related to parental notions of investing in their children’s future.

5-7 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Elite Sport Training Programs Most common in private, commercial programs. Emphasize the potential for children to gain material rewards through sports. Children often “work” long hours and become like “labourers,” but programs are not governed by child labour laws. Raise ethical issues about adult-child relationships.

5-8 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley New Interests in Alternative Sports A response to highly structured, adult-controlled organised programs. Revolve around desires to be expressive and spontaneous. May have high injury rates and patterns of exclusion related to gender and social class. Are being appropriated by large corporations for advertising purposes.

5-9 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Different Experiences Formal Sports Emphasise: Formal rules Set positions Systematic guidance by adults Status and outcomes Informal Sports Emphasise: Action Personal involvement Challenging experiences Reaffirming friendships

5-10 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Different Outcomes Formal Sports Emphasise: Relationships with authority figures Learning rules and strategies Rule-governed teamwork & achievement Informal Sports Emphasise: Interpersonal & decision- making skills Cooperation Improvisation Problem solving

5-11 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley When Are Children Ready to Play Organised, Competitive Sports? Prior to age 12, many children don’t have the ability to fully understand competitive team sports –They play “beehive soccer” Children must lean how to cooperate before they can learn how to compete. Team sports require the use of a “third party perspective”.

5-12 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley What Are the Dynamics of Family Relationships in Youth Sports? Sports have the potential to bring families together. Being together does not always mean that close communication occurs. Children may feel pressure from parents. Parent labour in youth sports often reproduces gendered ideas about work and family.

5-13 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley How Do Social Factors Influence Youth Sport Experiences? Participation opportunities vary by social class. Encouragement often varies by gender and ability/disability. Self-perceptions and social consequences of participation vary by social class, gender, race/ethnicity, ability/disability, and sexuality.

5-14 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Competitive Sport in Schools Impact on the quality of education: 1. What are the arguments for and against the programs? 2. How are the programs related to the educational experiences of competitors and other students in secondary schools ? 3. What effects do the programs have on the organisation of schools and the quality of educational programs? 4. What are the major problems associated with the programs and how might the problems be solved?

5-15 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Additional Effects of Secondary School Sports Being Noticed and Rewarded Attracting Adult Advocates Providing Occasions for Learning

5-16 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Competitive Secondary School Sports: Problems and Recommendations (1) an overemphasis on “sports development,” (2) limited participation access, and (3) school cultures in which certain competitors are privileged over other students.

5-17 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Do Competitive Sports Contribute to Education? No consistent evidence that school sports produce negative consequences for participants. Secondary school sport programs usually create school spirit among some students and staff. School programmes subvert the achievement of educational goals when they (1) overemphasize sports development, (2) limit participation among certain segments of the student body, and (3) distort the status system and organisational culture that exists in a school.

5-18 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Recommendations for Changing Informal & Alternative Sports Make play spaces more safe and accessible to as many children as possible. –Be sensitive to social class and gender patterns. Provide indirect guidance without being controlling. Treat these sports as worthwhile sites for facing challenges and developing competence.

5-19 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Recommendations for Changing Organised Sports Increase action Increase personal involvement Facilitate close scores and realistic challenges Facilitate friendship formation and maintenance

5-20 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Recommendations for Changing High-performance Programs Establish policies, procedures, and rules to account for the rights and interests of children participants. Create less controlling environments designed to promote growth, development, and empowerment.

5-21 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Prospects for Change Often subverted when priority is given to efficiency and organisation over age-based developmental concerns. May be subverted by national organisations concerned with standardising programs. May be subverted by adult administrators with vested interests in the status quo.

5-22 Copyright  2009 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs t/a Sports in Society by Coakley Coaching Education Programs Are useful when they provide coaches with information on: –Dealing with children safely and responsibly. –Organising practices and teaching skills. Can be problematic when they foster a “techno- science” approach to controlling children as they teach skills. –Creating “sports efficiency experts” should not be the goal.