Dialect n Form of a language distinctive of a region or social group n Includes pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary n Accent: only refers to differences in pronunciation

n Dialects of a language are mutually intelligible, for the most part n Distinctions between dialects and languages rest on political and cultural criteria (not on strictly linguistic factors)

n Norwegian, Swedish and Danish are mutually intelligible but are considered separate languages n Dialects on the German-Dutch border similar but each looks to language of capital as reference

Difference model All languages/dialects: are rule-governed serve the needs of their speakers Standard is just one dialect Dialects differ but all are good.

Deficit model Socially stigmatized dialects are linguistically and cognitively deficient. Standard speech is the only correct form. Deviations from standard are wrong, lazy, careless.

Standard dialect Language variety: with highest prestige used in print taught in schools spoken by educated

Formal standard n Prescribed by grammar books, dictionaries, etc. n Based on written language of established writers n Almost universally ignored in speech

Informal standard n Language usage of groups with high social prestige those who hire and teach n Some forms rejected as “too correct”

Language attitudes Attitudes toward non-standard dialects reflect attitudes toward their speakers. Non-standard may be dismissed as not even English.

Variation by class n Features not exclusive to a class n Different frequency of usage n All classes vary speech by context

n All classes use more prestige forms in most careful speech –Shows knowledge of prestige forms –Share evaluation of forms

n If linguistic change in progress, highest usage of prestige form by lower middle class n Women use more standard forms than men of their class

Retention of stigmatized speech n Reinforced by peer group, rejected if don’t conform n Identify with home culture and close network n Revolt against outsiders

Struggle of teacher vs. student n Teacher probably uses non-standard form in casual speech though unaware n Teacher condemns non-standard form and not aware of shifting style by context

n Students not aware that use standard forms in some contexts n Students feel teacher is trying to abolish their form of speech and resist