Motivation in Sport September 12, 2002

Theory-Based Approaches to Motivation Competence Motivation (Harter, 1978, 1981) Competence Motivation (Harter, 1978, 1981) Expectancy-Value (Eccles & Harold, 1993) Expectancy-Value (Eccles & Harold, 1993) Achievement Goal (Nicholls, 1984) Achievement Goal (Nicholls, 1984) Cognitive Evaluation (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985) Cognitive Evaluation (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985) Sport Commitment (Scanlan et al., 1993) Sport Commitment (Scanlan et al., 1993) Attribution (Weiner, 1979) Attribution (Weiner, 1979)

Achievement Goal Theory (Nicholls, 1984) Developmentally based Developmentally based Key component = How does an individual define success? Key component = How does an individual define success? Individuals have different orientations for success: mastery & ego Individuals have different orientations for success: mastery & ego

Mastery Orientation Success = improvement Success = improvement Focus is on improving ability Focus is on improving ability Self-referent Self-referent Premium is placed on learning Premium is placed on learning High interest/curiosity in task, appropriate level of challenge, & effort High interest/curiosity in task, appropriate level of challenge, & effort Sometimes called Task Orientation Sometimes called Task Orientation

Ego Orientation Success = being better than others; winning Success = being better than others; winning Focuses on proving ability Focuses on proving ability Other-referent Other-referent Low interest, low curiosity, low challenge level Low interest, low curiosity, low challenge level Sometimes called Social Comparison Orientation Sometimes called Social Comparison Orientation

Achievement Goal Theory Goal orientation is not enough to determine motivation (the two are orthogonal) Goal orientation is not enough to determine motivation (the two are orthogonal) 2nd key factor is a person’s perception of their ability (similarity with previous two theories) 2nd key factor is a person’s perception of their ability (similarity with previous two theories) Motivation = Goal + Perceived Orientation Ability Motivation = Goal + Perceived Orientation Ability

Interaction Effect High Ego + High Perceived Ability = ???? High Ego + High Perceived Ability = ???? High Ego + Low Perceived Ability = ???? High Ego + Low Perceived Ability = ???? High Mastery + High PA = ???? High Mastery + High PA = ???? High Mastery + Low PA = ???? High Mastery + Low PA = ????

Research on Achievement Goals: Beliefs of Academic Success Mastery Beliefs for Success Mastery Beliefs for Success –Working hard, co-operation, interest in activity, trying different strategies Ego Beliefs for Success Ego Beliefs for Success –Being smart, knowing how to impress teacher, trying to do better than others

Beliefs for Success in Sport (Duda & Nicholls, 1989) Mastery Beliefs Mastery Beliefs –Hard work, motivation Ego Beliefs Ego Beliefs –Talent/skill –Knowing how to cheat

Enjoyment in Sport (Duda & Nicholls, 1989) Mastery = more enjoyment, regardless of outcome Mastery = more enjoyment, regardless of outcome Ego = less enjoyment, regardless of outcome Ego = less enjoyment, regardless of outcome

Task Difficulty (Nicholls, 1988) Mastery Orientation Mastery Orientation –Select more challenging, appropriate tasks Ego Orientation Ego Orientation –Tend to select easier tasks

Other Factors Affected Injury Rehabilitation Injury Rehabilitation Belief of Sport’s Purpose Belief of Sport’s Purpose Belief in Legitimacy of Illicit Acts Belief in Legitimacy of Illicit Acts

Developmental Changes in Goal Orientation 4-6 years 4-6 years –Don’t distinguish between effort & ability 6-7 years 6-7 years –Concept of difficulty develops 7-9 years 7-9 years –Effort is cause of outcomes

Developmental Changes in Goal Orientation 9-10 years 9-10 years –Success = ability OR effort years years –Ability & effort fully differentiated Largest decline in youth sport participation- -why??? Largest decline in youth sport participation- -why???

Motivational Climate How is a person’s achievement situation structured? How is a person’s achievement situation structured? What kind of goals are encouraged? What kind of goals are encouraged? Performance vs. Learning Performance vs. Learning

Motivational Climate Performance Climate Performance Climate Encourages ego orientation Encourages ego orientation Success relates to others Success relates to others Learning Climate Learning Climate Encourages mastery orientation Encourages mastery orientation Success relates to previous abilities Success relates to previous abilities

How Is Climate Designed? What is the reward structure & FB? What is the reward structure & FB? How are practice sessions designed? How are practice sessions designed? How is performance evaluated? How is performance evaluated? What is the reaction to failure? What is the reaction to failure? Who is in charge of this? Who is in charge of this?

Performance Climate Concern is outcome-based Concern is outcome-based Autocratic Autocratic Increases in desire to use superficial learning techniques Increases in desire to use superficial learning techniques Sport examples? Sport examples?

Learning Climate Concern with deep learning Concern with deep learning Allows for self-monitor/self-selection Allows for self-monitor/self-selection Encourages challenging goals Encourages challenging goals –If extrinsic rewards are a controlling factor, what do we choose to do?

Perceptions of Learning Climate (Nicholls, 1992; Ames, 1992) Contributes to effort-related success beliefs Contributes to effort-related success beliefs Enjoyment Enjoyment Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation Anxiety Levels Anxiety Levels Perceptions of Competence Perceptions of Competence Peer relationships Peer relationships

Optimal Setting Extrinsic rewards? Extrinsic rewards? Feedback schedules? Feedback schedules? Personal choice/challenge Personal choice/challenge Attitude toward failure Attitude toward failure Practice & repetitions Practice & repetitions Self-testing Self-testing Goal orientation still will impact Goal orientation still will impact

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1985) Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation –challenge, skill improvement, fun Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation –Social status, money, medals, approval Used to understand relationship between IM & EM and the effects of external rewards on motivation in general Used to understand relationship between IM & EM and the effects of external rewards on motivation in general

Cognitive Evaluation Theory Assumes we have two basic needs: Assumes we have two basic needs: Competence Competence Self-determination Self-determination Theory makes predications regarding how to facilitate these two needs Theory makes predications regarding how to facilitate these two needs Many things can influence Many things can influence

Processes Affecting IM: Controlling Vs. Informational Controlling = Individual’s locus of causality Controlling = Individual’s locus of causality Internal or External Internal or External If controlling aspect is high (external), then rewards are seen as controlling the behavior--are extrinsic If controlling aspect is high (external), then rewards are seen as controlling the behavior--are extrinsic Behavior is then no longer self-determined Behavior is then no longer self-determined Old Man story Old Man story

Processes Affecting IM: Controlling Vs. Informational Informational = affects feelings of competence Informational = affects feelings of competence Events providing positive information should be rewarding and increase IM Events providing positive information should be rewarding and increase IM Effect will depend on meaning of reward to the athlete (Ex.: cash prize for top five places) Effect will depend on meaning of reward to the athlete (Ex.: cash prize for top five places)