Saussurean Paradox “How can a language continue to be used effectively as a vehicle for expression and communication while it is in the middle of a change, or rather in the middle of a large number of changes?” Trask, R. L. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, 1996, 267. 1/18

Variation in Speech  “No two people speak exactly the same”  And no individual speaks exactly the same every time he/she speaks. Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 131. 2/18

Speaker Innovation— Not Language Change “In reality, it is not so much that language itself changes as that speakers and writers change the way they use the language. Speaker innovation is a more accurate description than language change.” Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 206. 3/18

Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 1) Page Location Trend Source of Change Example or Comment 207 New Zealand new / nuclear /nju/  /nu/ American influence 208 Isle of Wight (UK) Vr Vr  V London influence (3 gen) 210 Martha’s Vineyard (US) light /ai// i/ Attitude: solidarity/identify house au/  / u with island culture Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp. 207-210. 4/18

Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 2) Page Location Trend Source of Change Example or Comment 213 Sydney (Aus) High-Rise Terminal NZ? (more young people) 2nd French (France) 204 Nasalization /n/  nasal V 2nd New Zealand 207 milk, fill, feel, silk Vl  V England?? child Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 213. 5/18

Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 3) Page Location Trend Source of Change Example or Comment 208 English Scouse accent increased use Liverpool boys: peers 209 Charmey, Switz. (French?) pronun innovations the young and women 210 Ucieda (Spain)  standard Castilian women Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp. 208-210. 6/18

Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 4) Page Location Trend Source of Change Example or Comment 210 Ucieda (Spain) standard Castilian women 213 Norwich (Britain) Cockney slang; London influence on glottal stops; commuter Sam h-dropping Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp. 210-213. 7/18

Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Vocabulary) Page Location Trend Source of Change Example or Comment 205 David (England?) wireless / radio familiarity for 3 gen 213 New Zealand far out one American boy Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp. 205, 213. 8/18

Wave Metaphor of Variation Spread Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 215. 9/18

Progress of Linguistic Change Holmes, Janet. 1992. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman, p. 222. 10/18

Does TV spread new forms? “A popular compromise is the view that the media can soften listeners up by exposing them to new forms in the speech of admired pop stars or TV personalities. When people are subsequently exposed to a particular form in the speech of a real person, they are then more likely to adopt it.” Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 227. 11/18

Spreading—Traditional Model 12/18

Spreading—TV Model? 13/18

Early Modern English Pronunciation Change mate meat meet Middle English /a:/ /ε:/ /e:/ Vowel Shift /e/ /i/ 16th century /met/ /met/ /mit/ 17th century /met/ /mit/ /mit/ Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold; based on descriptions on pp. 281-284. 14/18

Morris Halle’s Explanation for mate, meat, and meet “In 1962, the distinguished Chomskyan linguist Morris Halle, in apparent desperation, put forward an astounding explanation: taking advantage of the abstract underlying forms permitted by Chomskyan linguistics, he suggested that several generations of speakers must have manage to keep the mate and meat vowels distinct in their heads, even though they always pronounced these vowels identically, and even though they never heard anybody else making the distinction.” Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 283. 15/18

Evolution of “do” Support in English Questions  1388: NONE Wycliffe  1526/1611: Some Tyndale / AV  Today: ALWAYS 1 1 Except when there are modals and BE and maybe HAVE Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 283. 16/18

Resolution of the Saussurean Paradox “Changes can proceed without disrupting the system of a language because the vehicle of change is variation, and variation is always present—indeed, it is a central characteristic of speech.” Trask, R.L.. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 281. 17/18

Resolution of the Saussurean Paradox “How can a language continue to be used effectively as a vehicle for expression and communication while it is in the middle of a change, or rather in the middle of a large number of changes?” (p. 267) Resolution of the Saussurean Paradox “Changes can proceed without disrupting the system of a language because the vehicle of change is variation, and variation is always present—indeed, it is a central characteristic of speech.” (p. 281) Trask, R.L. 1996. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, pp. 267, 281. 18/18