Process Control Instrumentation II Module 4

Module 4 Final control element : I/P converter – pneumatic and electric actuators – valve positioner – control values – characteristics of control valves – inherent and installed characteristics – valve body – commercial valve bodies – control valve sizing – cavitation and flashing – selection criteria.

I/P Converter

ACTUATORS If a valve is used to control a flow, some mechanism must physically open or close the valve. For a temperature control some mechanism must turn the heater ON or OFF. these are examples of ACTUATORS. Between Signal conversion unit and Control Valve.

ACTUATORS TYPES ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS Solenoid Motors PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS Spring and Diaphragm Actuators Piston Actuators Rotary Valve Actuators ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS SOLENOID ON- OFF Control

ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS MOTORS Motor as Direct Actuators Motor along with Gear boxes Common Varieties DC Motors AC Motors Stepping Motors

PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS SPRING & DIAPHRAGM ACTUATORS

PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS SPRING & DIAPHRAGM ACTUATORS

PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS SPRING & DIAPHRAGM ACTUATORS DIRECT ACTING REVERSE ACTING

PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS SPRING & DIAPHRAGM ACTUATORS FAIL SAFE OPERATIONS FAIL OPEN (Air to Close) FAIL CLOSED (Air to Open)

PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS SPRINGLESS DIAPHRAGM ACTUATORS

PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS PISTON ACTUATORS

PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS PISTON ACTUATORS

ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS PH = F1/A1 = Fw/A2 Fw = F1A2/A1

HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

ACTUATORS - COMPARISON Actuator types Advantages Disadvantages Electrical(servomotor or stepping motor) Direct interface with computer system. Simple design. Low thrust. Slow speed. No mechanical fail safe hazardous. Electromechanical(Motors combined with gear boxes) High thrust High stiffness coefficient Flexible adaptation Complex design No mechanical fail safe Large, heavy structure Hazardous Hydraulic and Electro hydraulic Fast speed Self lubrication Fluid Viscosity Sensitive Pneumatic and Electro-pneumatic Low cost Mechanical Fail safe Simple design Small package Suitable for highly hazardous areas also Good control with control device Slow speed Lack of stiffness Instability Moderate trust Quality air requirement

POSITIONERS It guarantees that the valve does move to the position where the controller wants to be. Can correct many variations, including changes in packing friction due to dirt, corrosion, or lack of lubrication; variations in the dynamic forces of the process; sloppy linkages; or non-linearities in the valve actuator.

ELECTRONIC VALVE POSITIONERS (For Electric Actuators) High Gain Proportional controller. It is considered as a slave controller of a cascade loop in which the master controller is the primary controller itself. The primary controller’s output signal is the set point for the slave controller (positioner)

ELECTRONIC VALVE POSITIONERS

VALVE POSITIONERS for PNEUMATIC Actuators Refer Krishnaswamy

Pneumatic Motion Balance Positioner

Pneumatic Force Balance Positioner

Electro-pneumatic Force Balance Positioner

CONTROL VALVES Control Flow Rate

CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS The relationship between control valve capacity and valve stem travel is known as the Flow Characteristic of the Control Valve. Trim design of the valve affects how the control valve capacity changes as the valve moves through its complete travel. Because of the variation in trim design, many valves are not linear in nature. Valve trims are instead designed, or characterized, in order to meet the large variety of control application needs. Many control loops have inherent non linearity's, which may be possible to compensate selecting the control valve trim.

CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS Inherent Characteristics Installed/ Effective Characteristics

CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS Inherent Characteristics (Ideal) These curves are based on constant pressure drop across the valve (pressure difference is determined by the valve alone). based on the design conditions, parameters and experimental results. Different from actual because of the variations in parameters and limitations in manufacturing process.

CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS Inherent Characteristics (Ideal) ASSUMPTIONS: The actuator is linear. The pressure difference across the valve is constant. The process fluid is not flashing, cavitating or approaching sonic velocity (Choked flow).

Inherent Characteristics….

1. Quick Opening CV Used for Full On/ Full OFF applications. Relatively small motion of valve stem results in maximum possible flow rate through the valve. Eg: 30% travel of stem may results in 90% of full flow Also called ‘DECREASING SENSITIVITY TYPE VALVE’ The valve sensitivity (∆Q/∆S) at any flow decreases with increasing flow.

2. Linear Valve Flow rate varies linearly with stem position. Q/Qmax = S/ Smax Sensitivity Constant. Eg: if valve open 25% the flow through the valve is 25% of full flow. Process tank level control, De-aerated level control etc.

3. Equal Percentage Valve A given percentage change in stem position produces an equivalent change in flow. These valves does not shut off flow completely. RANGEABILITY, R = Qmax /Qmin ‘INCREASING SENSITIVITY TYPE’ The valve sensitivity at any given flow rate is a constant percentage of the given flow rate, thus equal percentage.

3. Equal Percentage Valve… Eg: consider a valve having a maximum flow rate of 60 tonnes/hr. Case 1 when valve delivering 10 tonnes/hr, when the valve is permitted to open 10% more, then the incremental flow is 1 tons/hr. Case 2 when valve delivering 40 tonnes/hr, when the valve is permitted to open 10% more, then the incremental flow rate is 4 tonnes/hr.

CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS Installed Characteristics (Real) When valve is installed as part of a process plant, its flow characteristics are no longer independent of the rest of the system. Fluid flow through the valve is subject to frictional resistances in series with that of the valve. Distortion Coefficient,

CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS Installed Characteristics (Real) Deviation in inherent valve characteristics. Actuators without positioner will introduce nonlinearities. Pump curves will also introduce nonlinearities.

Valve Body & Commercial Valve Bodies Refer Krishnaswamy

CONTROL VALVE SIZING Proper sizing of control valve is important. If control valve is oversize, The valve must operate at low lift and the minimum controllable flow is too large. Lower part of the flow-lift characteristic is most likely to be non uniform in shape. If control valve is undersize, the maximum flow desired for operation of a process may not be provided.

Control valve sizing FACTORS AFFECTING SIZING Pressure Drop across the control valve Flow Rate through the control valve Specific Gravity Other factors such as type of fluid, gas or liquid, critical flow conditions for gases and vapours and viscosity of liquids influence valve size

FLOW COEFFICIENT, CV The flow coefficient indicates the amount of flow the control valve can handle under a given pressure drop across the control valve. ‘The number of US Gallons of cold water at 60◦ F flowing through a fully open control valve for 1 minute at a pressure difference of 1 psi.’ US Gallon = 3.785 ltr Imperial Gallon = 4.53 ltr

FLOW COEFFICIENT, KV CV = 1.17 KV KV = 0.86 CV Whenever the flow coefficient is mentioned in metric units. The flow rate of water in m3/hr at about 300C flowing through the fully opened control valve at a pressure drop of 1 kg/cm2 across the valve. CV = 1.17 KV KV = 0.86 CV

FLOW COEFFICIENT, KV Q = flow rate SG = Specific Gravity

Guidelines for Sizing of Control Valves The valve shall be sized for the actual flow condition and not for the ultimate design capacity of the system. Normal maximum flow rate is normally about 70% of the ultimate design capacity. Most of the pressure drop of the system should be across the control valve. (about 70%) When the pipe line is dimensioned with normal allowable velocities the control valve will be a few sizes smaller than the pipe line. Only in extreme cases where very high velocities have been used in the pipe line, the size of the control valve will be the same as that of the pipe line.

Guidelines for Sizing of Control Valves… The selection must be done such that the calculated CV is attained at about 75 to 80% of the full wave travel. Regardless of the application such as flow control or pressure control the valve sizing is done on the basis of flow coefficient CV.

CAVITATION Related to Bernoulli’s theorem which describes the pressure profile as the fluid passes through a narrower passage, restriction, orifice or control valve. As the fluid accelerates pressure head is converted into velocity head. Fluid accelerates to maximum velocity, minimum pressure known as Vena Contracta. Fluid then slows down as it again expands to full pipe area. Static pressure recovers but a part is lost due to friction.

CAVITATION… If the pressure head drops below the liquid vapour pressure at that temperature, then vapour bubbles will form downstream of the restriction. As the static pressure recovers to a point greater than vapour pressure, the vapour bubbles collapse back into their liquid phase. This collapse of bubbles produces high-energy implosions which is called ‘CAVITATION’. These implosions generate noise, fluid shock cells, and gets that impinge upon the trim metal parts. It generates a tremendous and concentrated impact force that destroys the metal as it fractures out tiny metal particles.

PRESSURE PROFILE

CAVITATION

CAVITATION… Cavitation is usually coupled with vibration and a sound like rock fragments or gravel flowing through the valve.

Elimination of CAVITATION No known material can withstand continuous cavitation without damage and eventual failure. The length of time it will take is a function of the fluid, metal type and severity of the cavitation. The greatest damage is caused by a dense pure liquid with high surface tension. Density governs the mass of the micro jet stream, and surface tension governs the jet velocity.

Cavitation Elimination Methods Revised Process Conditions Revised Valve Gas Injection Revised Installation

Cavitation Elimination Methods

Cavitation Elimination Methods…

FLASHING Cavitation occurs when P2˃PV , while flashing takes place when P2˂PV. Liquid flashes into vapour and stays in the vapour phase. The specific volume increases as liquid changes to vapour which in turn causes an increase in the fluid velocity. If enough vapour is formed, the resulting high velocities can erode metals. So the piping downstream of a valve needs to be much larger than the inlet-piping in order to keep the velocity keep the velocity of the stream low enough to prevent erosion.

SELECTION OF CONTROL VALVES Need for a Control Valve Collection of Process Data Assigning Valve Pressure Drop Control Valve Performance Valve characteristics Gain of control loop components like process, sensor, controller and valve gain. Process Nonlinearity Valve Rangeability Control Valve Sequencing Split-ranging or floating

SELECTION OF CONTROL VALVES… Control Valve Sizing Valve Actuator Selection Whether electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic Actuator Speed of Response Actuator power or torque Valve failure position (Fail safe operation) Valve Positioner When not to use positioner To eliminate dead band Split range operation

SELECTION OF CONTROL VALVES… Process Application Considerations High Pressure service High differential pressure usage Vacuum service High temperature service Low temperature service Cavitation and erosion Flashing and erosion Viscous and slurry service Leakage Small flow values Control valve noise Piping and installation considerations Climate and atmospheric corrosion

SELECTION OF CONTROL VALVES… 9. Control Valve Specification form 10. Test report and test specification