Synthesis Organization

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The Toulmin Model, developed by British philospher Stephen Toulmin, identified a 6-step process of logical argumentation which employs both inductive (general/specific) and deductive logic (specific/general) . The method describes a powerful way to shape and understand argument in a convincing and reasonable arguments. Toulmin Argument

6 Steps to Analyzing Argument Claim Grounds Warrant Backing Rebuttal Qualifier 6 Steps to Analyzing Argument

A claim is a debatable and controversial statement or assertion you hope to prove. This includes information you are asking them to accept as true or actions you want them to accept and enact. Sometimes, the claim involves a question of definition (It’s raining. No, it’s not; that’s sleet) A claim is just a lonely statement, waiting the company of evidence and good reasons. For example, Claim

You need Grounds Evidence & Reasons Scenario: Lately you keep having to repeat everything to your grandfather. What is an example of a claim you might make to him? CLAIM: Grandfather needs a hearing aid Why isn’t a claim enough? Family members will not simply agree. Family will ask why, and you will need to prove your claim. This is where …. You need reasons (grounds) to support your claim Evidence & Reasons So CLAIM You need Grounds

Toulmin Argument Claim: Grandfather needs a hearing aid Grounds: Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty Toulmin Argument

Grounds Grounds are the evidence that proves the claim. The grounds are the evidence, data and reasoning behind the claim. It is the “truth” on which the claim is based, may include proof of expertise, and the basic premises on which the rest of the argument is built. Grounds

Grounds (contd.) Claim: Grandfather needs a hearing aid Grounds: It is critical to the argument that the grounds are not challenged because if they are, they may become a claim, which you will need to prove with even deeper information and further argument. What addition grounds can we add to the claim? Claim: Grandfather needs a hearing aid Grounds: Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty He constantly replies, “What I can’t hear you.” We constantly repeat ourselves to him Grounds (contd.)

Anticipate Counterclaim Your audience will begin to question your statement. Anticipate the challenges to your claims. Anticipate the assumptions your audience will make. Know core values of audience and or common assumptions you share. Anticipate Counterclaim

This is the inference or assumption that makes the connection between the claim and the grounds. It legitimizes the claim by showing the grounds to be relevant. It is often unstated and is based on assumptions that make the claim seem plausible. It’s often a value or principle you share with audience. Therefore, “knowing” your audience is important. Warrant

Warrants answers the unspoken audience questions: “Why does that data mean your claim is true?” Or, “How did you arrive at that claim based upon the grounds?” What might be a warrant you could offer in the claim with grandfather? Warrant (contd.)

What other warrants can we add? Claim: Grandfather needs a hearing aid Grounds: Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty He constantly replies, “What? I can’t hear you.” We constantly repeat ourselves to him Warrant: A hearing aid helps most people to hear better. What other warrants can we add? Toulmin Argument

Warrants may be based on logos, ethos, or pathos, or values that are assumed to be shared with the listener. You try it! Complete the statement. Since most people believe _warrant___ and _evidence___ is a fact, _claim. . Reason(s) So Claim Since Warrant

A warrant can be classified according to purpose and type: Authoritative warrants – rely on expert testimony to verify a claim; generically state that “qualified sources conclude that based on this data the following conclusion is justified;” dependent on backing offered in terms of expert testimony. What is an example of an authoritative warrant does Jefferson use? Motivational warrants – rely on appeals to the audience’s convictions, virtues, and values to support the claim. Speakers must rely on precise audience analysis in order to understand what motivational appeals would be effective. Identify an example of a motivational warrant? Warrant (contd.)

Claim Grounds Warrant Backing Reservation/Rebuttal Qualifier Backing

Backing is the support for an argument and gives additional support to the warrant by answering different questions. helps audience understand the reasoning used in the warrant. justifies the warrant. With backing, the argument (and the speaker) seems more credible. Without backing, audience only has a skeleton of the argument (claims and warrants). Therefore the audience may question the reasoning in the argument. Backing

Backing and Statistics The evidence you offer to support a warrant (core value or assumption) is called backing. It can include any type of support material: statistics, examples, testimony. Backing and Statistics

Examples are concrete instances or situations that illustrate the warrant. Clearer because they provide a “real world” illustration of what is being said. There is a danger in generalizing an example to be true in all situations. Backing and Examples

Testimony involves use of expert opinion or personal experience, both of which can add credibility. Example of Backing: Claim – The government should tax companies for the pollution they produce. Warrant – Pollution harms the health of citizens. Possible Backing – statistics from scientific studies on effects of air pollution. Backing and Testimony

Example o f Backing Another example: Claim – Handguns should be banned. Grounds – Handguns were involved in 20,000 deaths last year. Warrant – Handguns cause needless deaths. Backing – a quote from James Brady, former Reagan press secretary, who was shot and permanently injured by John Hinckley. What might be a backing you could offer in the argument with your grandfather? Example o f Backing

Toulmin Argument Claim: Grandfather needs a hearing aid Grounds: Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty Warrant: A hearing aid helps most people to hear better. Hearing aids are expensive Backing: Hearing aids are available locally. What other backing can you offer? How does backing justify or strengthen the warrant? Toulmin Argument

Reservation/Rebuttal In Toulmin’s model, arguments are not universally true. Despite the careful construction of the argument, there may still be counter-arguments or exceptions to the claim. The rebuttal refutes the opposing view or counterargument. Or it anticipates the counter-argument by giving the rebuttal during the initial presentation of the argument. Reservation/Rebuttal

Rebuttal Predict the counterargument this statement rebuts: Claim: Grandfather needs a hearing aid Grounds: Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty Warrant: A hearing aid helps most people to hear better. Backing: Hearing aids are available locally. Rebuttal: There is a support desk that deals with technical problems if your hearing aid does not work properly. Rebuttal

Qualifiers Qualifier Claim Grounds Warrant Backing Reservation/Rebuttal Qualifier Qualifiers

Qualifier Qualifiers verbalize the relative strength of an argument. Toulmin’s system works so well because it does acknowledge the limits of a claim with words such as most, usually, presumably, almost, in some cases, possibly, for the most part, few, routinely, always or sometimes. Qualifiers and reservations are often used by advertisers who are constrained not to lie. Thus they slip 'usually', 'virtually', 'unless' and so on into their claims. Just listen the little voice at the end of a commercial that rapidly covers the conditions and side effects of a new drug. Qualifier

Example: If you were arguing that a certain film is one people would enjoy, you might say people “will probably” enjoy it since you cannot predict with certainty the subjective experience of others. Another example: Claim – Handguns are leading to the destruction of the school system. Qualifier – Handguns are “likely” one of the key factors leading to the erosion of American schools. What is an example of a qualifier for the claim about your grandfather’s hearing? Qualifier (contd.)

Toulmin Argument Claim: Grandfather needs a hearing aid Grounds: Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty Warrant: A hearing aid helps most people to hear better. Backing: Hearing aids are available locally. Reservations: Grandfather won’t know how to use it properly. Rebuttal: There is a support desk that deals with technical problems Qualifiers: Hearing aids help most people. Or, unless there is evidence to the contrary, hearing aids do no harm to ears. Toulmin Argument

Toulmin Model

Create a visual representation of Toulmin’s argument for the current synthesis prompt. Your chart should be constructed on legal paper. Include the following: Full chart Indicate where you will use sources Color Because __________________, therefore ____________ since ________________ statement. Assignment

Did you will notice the Toulmin model at work in that last sentence? Now that you are ‘familiar’ with the Toulmin model, this sentence should be easy to complete: Because _______, therefore _______ since _________. In analyzing an argument, fill in the first blank with the data or support (grounds) second with the assertion, or claim, and, third with the unstated assumptions warrant. A warrant — usually tacit or unspoken — is the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker, or writer, and the audience; it establishes the logical connection between the data and the claim. With this formula, a claim seems not merely an assertion but rather the logical conclusion that must be reached after testing evidence that supports a belief . Because such an approach helps students understand the elements of an argument, it is therefore a valuable pedagogical technique, since greater understanding among our students is a desirable quality. Did you will notice the Toulmin model at work in that last sentence?