Interviews & focus groups Research Methodology

The research interview A purposeful conversation between 2 or more people. It requires the interviewer to: Establish rapport Ask concise and unambiguous questions Listen carefully. Intrviews’ place in the research design: to explore; to formulate hypotheses; to collect data to explain; to illustrate the results; to find furher research questions

Approaches to the interview The objective approach: interviewees are ’witnesses’ to an independent reality, not as social actors (their culture and views are nit taken into consideration). It collects factual(ly treated) data. The subjective approach: the interviewees’ views are socially constructed, so are the gathered data. The interview is treated as an interaction between the interviewee and the interviewer. The central role of the interviewer in constructing the meaning is recognized.

Interview types It should be consistent with the research question(s)/objective(s) and the research strategy. There are parallel typologies.

Typology 1 Saunders et al. (2016 )

Typology 2 Structured Semi-structured Unstructured (in-depth) Semi-structured and unstructured interviews are qualitative research interviews.

Structured interviews Based on questionnaires: identical, standardized questions. The questions are read out and the responses are recorded (usually with pre-coded answers) by the interviewer. Minimalize the social interaction during the interview to decrease bias: asking exactly as written, with the same tone. Quantifiable data are preferred.

Semi-structured interviews The researcher has a list of themes and questions, but their use and their order may vary from interview to interview. It is also possible to add questions to the list during the interview. An interview schedule is useful (with opening questions, hints etc.). Audio-recording and/or note taking is necessary.

Unstructured (in-depth) interview Ther is no predetermined list of questions, only a clear idea about the aspects to explore. The interviewee is allowed to talk freely in relation about the topic (about events, feelings, beliefs etc.). It is non-directive. Subcategories: Informant interview: guided by the interviewee Respondent interview: a greater role of the interviewer

Research purposes and interview types Saunders et al. (2016 )

When to use qualitative interviews? Research purpose The importance of personal contact and building trust: Managers like to be interviewed relative to other methods. It provides insight and control to the interviewee It is an opportunity to speak It is a positive feedback It is less tiring The nature of data collection questions: Large number of questions Complex and open ended questions The order of the questions may need to be varied Length of time required and completeness of the process Natural data: everyday authentic situation is necessary Contrived data: the situation is constructed

Checklist Saunders et al. (2016 )

Data quality Biases: interviewer bias, response bias, participation bias Cultural differences betwen the interviewer and the interviewee. Even interviewing itself has assumptions: it is OK to discuss the topic with a stranger etc. Generalizability/transferability

Preparing a qualitative interview Your level of knowledge Developing themes, supplying information to the interviewee Appropriateness of the interview location Appropriateness of your appearance Opening an interview

Approach to questioning Aim: reducing the scope for bias and increasing reliability. Clear phrasing Neutral tone Open questions help to avoid/reduce bias Probing questions can increase completeness Try to ground responses in the real-life experiences (critical incident technique) Avoid: long and double-barrel questions too many concepts and jargon Sensitive questions to the end

Question types Open questions Probing questions: to explore further. Prefacing („That is interesting…”) can be useful. Specific and closed questions Interpretation and extension questions

Questions to avoid Leading Proposing

Other means to further your questioning Follow-up expressions Short follow-up statements Short follow-up questions Rephrasing what you have just been told Inviting silence Combination of devices Summarizing to test understanding

Other considerations Impact of the interviewer’s behavior Attentive listening skills Dealing with difficult participants Data recording Contextual data: location, date and time, setting, background information (participant, organization, event etc.) Immediate impressions

Group interview A general term for semi-structured and in-depth interviews conducted with 2 or more interviewees. Group size: 2-12 participants (usually) based on the topic and the skills of the interviewer. Participants are chosen by judgement (non-randomly) to meet the objectives (to maximize the information). Every participant’s contribution should be maximized (arrangement, encouragement). The flow of discussion must be managed verbally and also nonverbally. Location and setting is important.

Focus groups Group interviews where the topic is defined clearly and precisely and there is a focus on enabling and recording interactive discussion between participants. Interviewer = moderator. Advantages: creativity, social (real life) situation, illustrative quotes, children Disadvantage: absolutely no chance to generalize, hard to find a good moderator.