Words English 306A; Harris

Lexicalization English Airplane spoon French Cuillère en forme d'avion Bird-like-machine-shaped-concave-instrument-for-eating-with English Airplane spoon French Cuillère en forme d'avion German Flugzeuglöffel Spoon in shape of airplane; French as the language of diplomacy (distance, nuance; 17% more words than English) Flying-thing-spoon; German as the language of pragmatism, engineering, getting things done; squish-em-together. English, notably, made up of a Germanic substrate and a French/Latin superstrate, is about halfway between. LANGUAGES HAVE PARITY, BUT THEY ARE NOT IDENTICAL; OFTEN, THEY ARE VERY DIFFERENT, BUT THEY ARE EXPRESSIVELY EQUIVALENT. English 306A; Harris

Lexicalization English 306A; Harris An example of multiple lexicalizations; my favourite is Spanish. English 306A; Harris

Symbolicity A mode defined by relationship of arbitrariness, convention, and learning dog (English) chien (French) Hund (German) perro (Spanish) leécaa’l (Navajo) kurii (Maori) mbwa (Swahili) khwei (Burmese) Arbitrary and conventional. No necessary relationship (no part or causation)--though intonation, volume, suprasegmental laughter. No resemblance--though slurp, slosh, slush, sleet, ... Major property: the main way it conveys its meaning. English 306A; Harris

Quiz A quiz. What do the following six sounds have in common? If you still don’t know, this one should tip the balance. That’s right, they’re ringtones. There is one other thing they have in common. None of them RING, in the sense of a bell. The word comes from another time, not so long ago. English 306A; Harris

“Arbitrariness” of symbols Another quick quiz. What’s this thing, this sign, this signifying thingamajig?<CLICK> Symbol? (yep, it is conventionally associated with AT&T, or was) Icon? (yep, it looks like a bell) Index? (yep, one thing to represent the whole techno-industrial-corporation) Most signifying thingamajigs have quotients of resemblance, convention, and association, belonging in them. It’s a matter of identifying the biggest quotient. English 306A; Harris

“Arbitrariness” of symbols Telephone words Ring Dial Hang up Once upon a time, phones rang. Despite the metonymic imagery, they didn’t ring like this <SOUND> But they had real bells on them, of a sort, like this only guy <CLICK>, and they made a ringing sound <SOUND> Once upon a time, one turned a dial to initiate a call, one dialed a call, like on this phone <CLICK>. It had a bell, too, inside. Once upon a time, one physically hung the mouthpiece up on a hook, to terminate the call, like in all of these guys. And in this one, too <CLICK>. But notice that this one doesn’t have a dial. It also didn’t have a bell. Yet, it still rang, and one still dialed, by pushing buttons. But looky here. We still dial phones like this. <CLICK>, though we don’t spin any dials to do it. We still hang it up, though that is just the push of a button. And, it still rings, though it doesn’t sound anything like a bell. Here’s one last example. I couldn’t resist. <SOUND> What’s the point? Well, all of the words we use for the phone appear completely arbitrary. But they have motivations that have atrophied. Remember Vico’s principles of research into the humanities. One of them was etymology, a practice often sneered on these days, but which can reveal a good deal about a community, its values, its technology. Frinstance, English 306A; Harris

quark, googol, hobbit, gollum, … Where words come from From the imagination quark, googol, hobbit, gollum, … Quark (three quarks for Muster Mark” --Joyce, Finnegan’s Wake). The googol was created by mathematician Edward Kasner to show the difference between an unimaginably large number (70!) and infinity. The name 'googol' was supposedly coined by Kasner's nine-year-old nephew Milton Sirotta in 1938 when asked to give a name for a huge number. English 306A; Harris

meow, bang, crackle, sploosh, ring, … Where words come from From the world meow, bang, crackle, sploosh, ring, … FROM THE WORLD A few more, this is direct ICONICITY. A noise in the world gets imitated and made into a word; WHICH THEORY OF LANGUAGE ORIGINS? English 306A; Harris

Iconicity — Sound Ring, rang, rung Splish, splash, sploosh, slosh, slush, sleet Doggie, kitty, itty bitty, teeny weenie Cock-a-doodle-do (English), cocorico (Spanish), kikeriki (German) It’s far more common than outright invention, and it leaves traces all over the place. These words all have sound elements that represent something about their meaning. That is, the signifier and the signified relationship is NOT arbitrary. It’s not determined, of course, but it’s not arbitrary. Ferdinand de Saussure had a famous counter-example to iconicity. Different languages make different animal sounds, he said. But look at the rooster examples. They all start with the same glottal sound, and they all have a burst of short syllables. English 306A; Harris

Where words come from From other words accused, addiction, aerial, alligator, amazement, anchovies, assassination, auspicious, backing, bandit, baseless, beached, bedroom, besmirch, bet, blanket, bloodstained, blushing, bump, buzzers, cake, cater, champion, circumstantial, compromise, consanguineous, courtship, cow, critic, dauntless, dawn, deafening, denote, deracinate, design, dialogue, dickens, discontent, disgraceful, dislocate, divest, domineering, drug, dwindle, elbow, embrace, employer, engagements, enmesh, enrapt, epileptic, equivocal, eventful, excitements, exposure, eyeball, fashionable, film, fixture, foregone, forward, frugal, futurity, generous, gloomy, glow, gnarled, gossip, grovel, gust, hint, hobnob, humour, hurry, hush, immediacy, impedes, importantly, inaudible, instinctively, investments, invulnerable, jaded, jet, jig, juiced, kickshaws, label, lackluster, lapse, laughable, leapfrog, lonely, lower, luggage, lustrous, madcap, majestic, manager, marketable, mimic, misgiving, misquote, monumental, mountaineer, negotiate, nervy, noiseless, numb, obsequiously, ode, olympian, oscene, outbreak, pageantry, pander, partner, pedant, perusal, petition, premeditated, promethean, puke, quarrelsome, questioning, radiance, rancorous, rant, reclusive, reinforcement, remorseless, retirement, reword, rival, roadway, rumination, sacrificial, sanctimonious, savagery, scuffles, secure, shudders, softhearted, splitting, stealthy, submerge, swagger, switch, tardiness, threateningly, tightly, torture, traditional, tranquil, transcendence, trippingly, unaware unclog, unmitigated, unreal, urging, varied, vaulting, viewless, watchdog, widowed, wormhole, worthless, yelping, zany Where words come from From other words From other words Yep; words are altered, rearranged, combined, shortened, spliced versions of other words. English 306A; Harris

Where words come from Semasiological Permutations of form accused, addiction, aerial, alligator, amazement, anchovies, assassination, auspicious, backing, bandit, baseless, beached, bedroom, besmirch, bet, blanket, bloodstained, blushing, bump, buzzers, cake, cater, champion, circumstantial, compromise, consanguineous, courtship, cow, critic, dauntless, dawn, deafening, denote, deracinate, design, dialogue, dickens, discontent, disgraceful, dislocate, divest, domineering, drug, dwindle, elbow, embrace, employer, engagements, enmesh, enrapt, epileptic, equivocal, eventful, excitements, exposure, eyeball, fashionable, film, fixture, foregone, forward, frugal, futurity, generous, gloomy, glow, gnarled, gossip, grovel, gust, hint, hobnob, humour, hurry, hush, immediacy, impedes, importantly, inaudible, instinctively, investments, invulnerable, jaded, jet, jig, juiced, kickshaws, label, lackluster, lapse, laughable, leapfrog, lonely, lower, luggage, lustrous, madcap, majestic, manager, marketable, mimic, misgiving, misquote, monumental, mountaineer, negotiate, nervy, noiseless, numb, obsequiously, ode, olympian, oscene, outbreak, pageantry, pander, partner, pedant, perusal, petition, premeditated, promethean, puke, quarrelsome, questioning, radiance, rancorous, rant, reclusive, reinforcement, remorseless, retirement, reword, rival, roadway, rumination, sacrificial, sanctimonious, savagery, scuffles, secure, shudders, softhearted, splitting, stealthy, submerge, swagger, switch, tardiness, threateningly, tightly, torture, traditional, tranquil, transcendence, trippingly, unaware unclog, unmitigated, unreal, urging, varied, vaulting, viewless, watchdog, widowed, wormhole, worthless, yelping, zany Where words come from From other words Semasiological Permutations of form borrowing combining reducing (converting) Onomasiological Permutations of meaning metaphoric metonymic specialization generalization Through extended meanings The verb fly becomes: the name of an insect, a baseball that is hit high, the space over a theater stage As derivations From study comes student, from moon comes month Through compound words Notebook, bedroom and mailbox are some obvious examples but also note elbow (ell + bow) and lackadaisical (from the expression 'lackaday' which itself derives from 'alack the day'). From root + affix Prefix + root Pro- (forward or forth) + duce (lead) = produce ("bring forth") Root + suffix Wonder + -full = wonderful Through changing spelling Alone is from 'all one'. Felt was once used to strain liquid, so the piece of felt used as the strainer became known as a felter, which later changed to filter. "God be with you" was once a valediction which, over the centuries, came to be pronounced and spelled as good-bye. From names (eponyms) People's names: The Teddy Bear is named after Teddy Roosevelt and the electrical volt after Alessandro Volta. Place names: Frankfurters after named after Frankfurt, Germany, and jeans after Genoa, Italy. Trade names: Kleenex, Band-aid, Jello, Xerox, Hoover From the shortening or truncating of words Telephone becomes phone, photograph becomes photo, megabyte becomes meg From acronyms Sonar = SOund NAvigation Ranging, laser = Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation Portmanteau words Motor + hotel = motel From foreign words Influenza (Italian), rendezvous (French), chow (Chinese), opal (Sanskrit) English 306A; Harris

Where words come from Semasiological processes borrowing combining morphological (tune in later) compounding acronyms/abbreviations blending reducing clipping (converting) English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes Borrowing skunk chocolate pyjamas bungalo typhoon tofu banana banjo jazz … The form inevitably changes (to accommodate the borrowing language’s phonology), and the meaning also shifts in various ways All languages borrow, as a result of trade, war, imperialism, travel, immigration, and so on. English is voracious, though. <CLICK>”We don't just borrow words, “James Nicoll has said, and been quoted widely for: “On occasion, English has pursued other languages down alleyways to beat them unconscious and rifle their pockets for new vocabulary". Nicoll is a KW writer, but I don’t know much more about him. This is the picture representing him on a LiveJournal site. <CLICK> When languages borrow, there is a change in form (pronunciation, sometimes in spelling), and there will be some shifts in meaning as well, sometimes big, sometimes small. English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--combining Compounds airplane fire engine greenhouse tie-in blackboard wet suit two or more words glued together English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--combining Compounds Stress patterns (like single words, not multiple words) Orthographic possibilities Glued together Hyphenated Nothing (just stress) English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--reducing Clipping professor hamburger demonstration facsimile submarine sandwich delicatessan world wide web internet a word formed by removing part of an ancestor word English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--reducing Clipping professor hamburger demonstration faxcsimile submarine sandwich delicatessen world wide web internet English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--reducing Clipping Often a form of jargon Efficiency In-group certification English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--combining and reducing Acronymns/Abbreviation radar scuba snafu fubar twain CBC USA WW1, WW2 WWW PR acronymns; pronoun- cable letter-enunciation English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--combining and reducing Acronymns/Abbreviation Jargons, Argots, Slangs Similar to clipping Efficiency In-group certification but Stronger groupiness More exclusive With clipping the linkages are more apparent, so more easily recoverable by outsiders; acronyms and abbreviations require secret information, a key. English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--combining and reducing Acronymns/Abbreviation txt msg ortholect AFAIK As far as I know ASAP As soon as possible B4 Before CUL8TR See you later BAM By all means BAU Business as usual BCNU Be seeing you BD Brain-dead BTDT Been there, done that … English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--combining and reducing Acronymns/Abbreviation txt msg ortholect AFAIK As far as I know ASAP As soon as possible B4 Before CUL8TR See you later BAM By all means BAU Business as usual BCNU Be seeing you BD Brain-dead BTDT Been there, done that … Rebus principle 4 = [for] 8 = [ejt] Rebus principle Aleph, ox, English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--converting Conversion (double-dipping) permít contést survéy butter ship toast nail pérmit cóntest súrvey dirty empty clean paint What seems like ‘one’ word used in more than one category. This is classified as a semasiological process, but notice that it also concerns the FUNCTION of the word, and therefore its meaning, to a noteworthy extent. It is a bit onomasiological, that is. English 306A; Harris

Semasiological processes--converting Conversion (double-dipping) Syntactic context Infallible diagnostic. “He put butter on the toast.” vs. “He buttered the toast.” English 306A; Harris

semasiological/onomasiological processes Blends smoke + fog motor + hotel aerobic + exercise breakfast + lunch information + entertainment education + entertainment Northern Telecom a word formed by combining two or more clipped ancestors English 306A; Harris

semasiological/onomasiological processes Blends smoke + fog motor + hotel aerobic + exercise breakfast + lunch information + entertainment education + entertainment Northern + Telecom English 306A; Harris

semasiological/onomasiological processes Blends smog motel aerobicise brunch infotainment edutainment NorTel Semasiological: ALTERATION OF FORM Onomasiological: NEW MANING ICONICITY: THE BLENDING OF THE WORDS; THE BLENDING OF THE CONCEPTS. English 306A; Harris

Where words come from Semasiological Permutations of form borrowing combining reducing (converting) Onomasiological Permutations of meaning metaphoric metonymic specialization generalization similarity Through extended meanings The verb fly becomes: the name of an insect, a baseball that is hit high, the space over a theater stage As derivations From study comes student, from moon comes month Through compound words Notebook, bedroom and mailbox are some obvious examples but also note elbow (ell + bow) and lackadaisical (from the expression 'lackaday' which itself derives from 'alack the day'). From root + affix Prefix + root Pro- (forward or forth) + duce (lead) = produce ("bring forth") Root + suffix Wonder + -full = wonderful Through changing spelling Alone is from 'all one'. Felt was once used to strain liquid, so the piece of felt used as the strainer became known as a felter, which later changed to filter. "God be with you" was once a valediction which, over the centuries, came to be pronounced and spelled as good-bye. From names (eponyms) People's names: The Teddy Bear is named after Teddy Roosevelt and the electrical volt after Alessandro Volta. Place names: Frankfurters after named after Frankfurt, Germany, and jeans after Genoa, Italy. Trade names: Kleenex, Band-aid, Jello, Xerox, Hoover From the shortening or truncating of words Telephone becomes phone, photograph becomes photo, megabyte becomes meg From acronyms Sonar = SOund NAvigation Ranging, laser = Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation Portmanteau words Motor + hotel = motel From foreign words Influenza (Italian), rendezvous (French), chow (Chinese), opal (Sanskrit) association narrowing broadening English 306A; Harris

Metaphor A new signified based on comparison broadcast (to cast out seeds  to send out a signal) mouse (little squeaky rodent  computer input device) NOTICE WITH THE MOUSE, THE SIMILARITY IS DECAYING WITH WIRELESS DEVICES--NO ‘TAIL’ BECOMING MORE ARBITRARY. English 306A; Harris

Metonymy A new signified based on physical or conceptual association jaw (cheek  pointy boney thing underneath cheeks) horn (boney animal projection (adapted to make sounds)  musical instrument) HOW IS HORN METONYMY, NOT METAPHOR? (not comparison, but material for object (made of horn). English 306A; Harris

Specialization Narrowing of signified pill (a small, ingestible unit of solid medication  a small, ingestible unit of birth-control medication) school (any learning institution  a specific type of learning--K-12) A baby might use the word train only for the toy train he plays with. Adults get confused sometimes when a kid uses the word “train” correctly about a toy, but then asks what that big chugging thing is that crosses the tracks in front of the car. He has a meaning, but he has a very specific one, which he hasn’t yet generalized to the broader cultural usage. LITOTES Notice that with pill, as in “are you taking the pill?” and school, as in “the school of architecture,” the other, broader meanings are retained. It’s just a new and MORE SPECIFIC usage that occurs. <CLICK> English 306A; Harris

Specialization hound meat deer write girl from hund, all domestic canines meat from meat, all edible substances deer from deor, wild beast write from writtan, to scratch girl from gerol, young person Historically there are lots of examples where specialization occurs, and the other, broader meaning attrophies. So, “hound” for instance. English 306A; Harris

Generalization Broadening of signified ship (send by boat  send by any means of transport) school (learning institution  an intellectual or creative group) A baby might use the word truck for cars and buses as well as trucks. In this case, the kid has a much too broad application, and needs to narrow it to the community usage. HYPERBOLE Again, these are examples in which the narrower meaning is retained. <CLICK> English 306A; Harris

Generalization dog holiday place pants virtue from dogge, a canine breed used for hunting holiday from haligdæ, a holy day place from platea, broad street pants from pantaloons, long, baggy trousers virtue from virtu, manliness Historical changes. Historically there are lots of examples where generalization occurs, and the other, broader meaning attrophies. So, “dog” for instance. Vir-tu, the vir of werewolf. English 306A; Harris

Conceptual processes also generate new senses of the ‘same’ word. Polysemy Conceptual processes also generate new senses of the ‘same’ word. Specialization, a narrowing of meaning--communicate anything, communicate information (this is now becoming the default) English 306A; Harris

A radial network The polysemy of school school of optometry cubist school school begins at 8:40 generalization specialization metonymy specialization metonymy Learning institution --> lessons (metonymy); it is an attribute of the school, a part of it. This usage doesn’t identify a different type of school, or a different type of activity, so it’s --> pupils, teaching (metonymy) pupils, teaching --> fish (metaphor) --> intellectual or creative collective (generalization) --> university, faculty (specialization) university, faculty --> special course of study (specialization) the whole school went to the game metaphor she is going to grad school English 306A; Harris school of fish

New terms English 306A; Harris

mallrat Teen or tween who spends large amounts of time hanging out in shopping malls English 306A; Harris

podcast A digital audio download of autonomous radio programming. English 306A; Harris

metrosexual A straight man with the good taste of a gay: scrupulous about his grooming; big consumer of cosmetic products and high fashion suits. English 306A; Harris

retrosexual Antonym of “metrosexual”: a straight guy who is scared of hair gel, doesn’t know the difference between teal and aqua, wears sweats. English 306A; Harris

adulescent An adult dressing/carrying on like a kid English 306A; Harris

kidult See “adulescent” English 306A; Harris

cube farm An office filled with cubicles. English 306A; Harris

prairie dogging When someone yells or drops something loudly in a Cube Farm, and everyone's head pops up over the walls to see what's going on. English 306A; Harris

assmosis The process by which some people seem to absorb success and advancement by kissing up to the boss rather than working hard. English 306A; Harris

salmon day The experience of spending an entire day swimming upstream only to be screwed and die in the end. English 306A; Harris

familymoon A holiday taken after the wedding by a bride, a groom, and their children from previous marriages. English 306A; Harris

mouse potato The on-line version of the couch potato. English 306A; Harris

mousetrapping A technique that forces a user to remain on a particular (usually pornographic or gambling) web page. English 306A; Harris

macarena page A web page capitalizing on a current fad; usually full of fluff with a short shelf life. English 306A; Harris

rain dance A chiefly ceremonial sequence of actions performed in the hope that they will solve a computer problem. English 306A; Harris

percussive maintenance Whacking an electronic device to get it to work again. English 306A; Harris

generica Features of the North American landscape that are exactly the same no matter where one is, such as fast food joints, strip malls, subdivisions. English 306A; Harris

vasectomy zoning Zoning laws and other restrictions that aim to keep children out of an area or neighborhood. English 306A; Harris

CLM Career Limiting Move, like doing an uncannily accurate imitation of your boss while she is standing right behind you. English 306A; Harris

Semasiology Formal processes Morphology metrosexual, retrosexual, podcast (?) Blend assmosis, adulescent, kidult, familymoon, generica, podcast (?) Conversion prairie dog[ging], mousetrap[ping] Abbreviation CLM Compounding mall rat Morphological: metro- and retro- are treated like prefixes on sexual, like homo-, hetero-, a-, bi-, though both “metro” and “retro” have some life of their own as clips now, so a case could also be made for compounds. “cast” is treated here like a suffix. Podcast also looks a bit like a blend, but notice that “pod” has not been shortened, and that cast is behaving like an item on its own (from sportscast, newscast, simulcast, etc.), rather than as a shortened version of “broadcast”. Blends, -ware is no longer a word on its own; here it’s standing in for “software’. Family moon looks like a compound, but the moon comes from honeymoon, not moon in the sky. English 306A; Harris

Semasiology Formal processes Nada rain dance, cube farm, macarena page, salmon day, mouse potato, percussive maintenance, vasectomy zoning Purely onomasiological rain dance: new context of use; new sense; new idiom cube farm, macarena page, salmon day, mouse potato, percussive maintenance, vasectomy zoning: new adjectival modifications; the creation of new phrases, or idioms, but not new words English 306A; Harris

Onomasiology Conceptual processes Metaphor mall rat, kidult, adulescent, rain dance, percussive maintenance, prairie dogging, mousetrapping, cube farm, salmon day, mouse potato Metonymy mall rat, macarena page, mouse potato, cube farm, mousetrapping, metrosexual, retrosexual, assmosis, vasectomy zoning Purely semasiological CLM Pick a few from each; click at the double up part. English 306A; Harris

Onomasiology Conceptual processes Metaphor mall rat, kidult, adulescent, rain dance, mousetrapping, percussive maintenance, prairie dogging, cube farm, salmon day, mouse potato Metonymy mall rat, macarena page, mousetrapping, metrosexual, retrosexual, assmosis, cube farm, vasectomy zoning, mouse potato Purely semasiological CLM Mouse potato metaphor (comparison of person to potato; comparison of computer user to tv watcher); comparison of input device to little rodent; metonymy, selecting one aspect of computer behaviour, using a mouse, to stand for all computer behaviour (notice that this is general, too; the person may only use a laptop, with a track pad or a track ball. WITH MOUSE POTATO, THERE IS EVEN A SEMASIOLOGICAL FACTOR, RHYME (LIKE CRACKBERRY). English 306A; Harris

Where words and senses come from Onomasiological processes Metaphoric Meaning shift on the basis of similarity Metonymic Meaning shift on the basis of association Specialization A narrowing of meaning Generalization A broadening of meaning English 306A; Harris

Signifier Semasiology Signified Onomasiology Word form polysemy homophony “dog” Concept evoked synonymy antonymy yappy, hairy quaduped English 306A; Harris

Onomasiology Synonymy Lawyer, Attorney, Barrister, Solicitor, Shyster, Ambulance-chaser, ... English 306A; Harris

Onomasiology Word formation Lawyer, Attorney, Barrister, Solicitor, Shyster, Ambulance-chaser, ... a) metaphor b) metonymy c) iconicity d) all of the above e) none of the above English 306A; Harris

Semasiology Word formation Lawyer, Attorney, Barrister, Solicitor, Shyster, Ambulance-chaser, ... a) blend b) clipping c) morphological d) compounding e) conversion English 306A; Harris

Onomasiology Antonymy black/white, up/down, boy/girl, stop/go, cat/dog, student/professor, ... English 306A; Harris

Semasiology Homophony (hoe/ho) Two (or more) words (therefore, two or more meanings) that happen to sound the same; a coincidence of form. Ho as in prostitute. Hoe as in garden implement. English 306A; Harris

Semasiology Homophony (bear/bare/bear) Two (or more) words (therefore, two or more meanings) that happen to sound the same; a product of coincidence. Bear as in ursidae. Bare as in naked. Bear as in carry. English 306A; Harris

Semasiology Polysemy (bear) Tolerate (I can’t bear his jokes.) Give testimony (I bear witness.) Have as an identification (We bear the same name.) Give birth (She can bear children.) Produce as yield (It has been known to bear fruit.) Support the weight (That pillar bears the weight of the whole first floor.) Maintain (They bear me a grudge.) Support the weight of, carry around; as prototypical. Tolerate (I can’t bear his jokes.) metaphor (intellectual/emotional, compared to physical) Give testimony (I bear witness.) metaphor (carry, & present, speech like an object Have as an identification (We bear the same name.) metaphor, carry a label/speech, like an object Give birth (She can bear children.); specialization, a particular type of carrying; metonymy, one of the things you do is to carry them. compound (that was the lesson of ‘pussy’) Produce as yield (It has been known to bear fruit.); specialization, a particular sort of supporting (after producing) (metaphor from animals/humans?) Support the weight (That pillar bears the weight of the whole first floor.) prototype Maintain (They bear me a grudge.), metaphor, carry around an emotion like an object English 306A; Harris

Meaning extension Semasiology Polysemy Metonymy Metaphor Specialization Generalization association comparison narrowing broadening Notice that these same processes, are onomasiological when we are dealing with DIFFERENT words, semasiological when we’re dealing with the SAME word English 306A; Harris

Semasiology Onomasiology Word Formation (building new signified/signifier relations) Morphological Metaphor Compounding Metonymy Conversion Specialization Clipping Generalization Blending Semantic Categories (classifying signified/signifier relations) Polysemy Synonymy Homophony Antonymy English 306A; Harris

Word classes Content words Function words Carry the semantic burden; less important syntactically. Open class. Do much of the syntactic syntactic work; relatively lightweight semantically. Closed class. English 306A; Harris

Word classes Content words Function words Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Prepositions Determiners Particles Qualifiers Degree words Pronouns Etc. etc. etc. English 306A; Harris

Word class diagnostics Semantic What sort of signifieds does the category evoke? Morphological What shape can the signifiers have (which affixes, if any, are legitimate)? Syntactic Which other words does it co-occur with, and in what order? English 306A; Harris

English Nouns Semantic Morphological Syntactic Person, place, or thing. Morphological Takes plural and possessive suffixes. dogs, dog’s Syntactic Follows articles and adjectives, in that order. a dog, the dog, a big dog, the green dog English 306A; Harris

English Adjectives Semantic Morphological Syntactic A quality, attribute, or property (of a person, place, or thing). Morphological Takes comparative and superlative suffixes. big, bigger, biggest Syntactic Precedes nouns, follows degree word. The very big boy. English 306A; Harris

English verbs Semantic An action or state. English 306A; Harris

English verbs Semantic An action or state. nod talk listen feel jump run hit manipulate … know agree hear feel believe doubt recognize hate … Feel (palpatate) / feel (experience an emotion) English 306A; Harris

English verbs Morphological Take four suffixes: past tense nodded 3sg present nods past participle (has) nodded, (had) nodded pres. participle (is) nodding, (was) nodding English 306A; Harris

English verbs Syntactic Can follow an auxiliary verb. He can nod his head. She will know that he is looking for his puppy. English 306A; Harris

English adverbs Semantic Modifies (in manner, time or location) an action or state. English 306A; Harris

 English adverbs Morphological (though many of them end in -ly.) English 306A; Harris

 English adverbs Morphological (though many of them end in -ly.) Inflectional derivational English 306A; Harris

English adverbs Syntactic Follows a verb. They nod vigorously. (Weak test, but compare “They nod friendly”) English 306A; Harris

Function words Highly specific tests for individual word category; treat them as belonging to one big bag, ‘not content words’. English 306A; Harris

http://www. arts. uwaterloo. ca/~raha/306a_web/ wordcategories http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~raha/306a_web/ wordcategories.pdf EnglishInflectionalAffixes.pdf English 306A; Harris

Word classes Content Function Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Everything else English 306A; Harris

Words Linguistic building blocks Word formation processes Semasiology Onomasiology Word classes English 306A; Harris