Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology Finishing up Observational Methods and Research Designs & Reading and Writing with APA Style Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

Announcements Reminder: Quiz 3 due Sept 10 (Monday) 11:59 PM I moved it back to Monday Exam 1 is 1½ weeks away Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, & 8 Online CITI ethics training due week 5 http://psychology.illinoisstate.edu/jccutti/psych231/f18/fall2018ethics.html This week’s labs: Download AND read the Assefi & Garry (2003) article before labs Bring the article to labs Announcements

Conducting Research Observational approaches: Data collection How do we observe the behaviors of interest? Types of research designs What kinds of research questions are you investigating? E.g., Cause and effect? Descriptive? Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist Observational Survey Case studies Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events Conducting Research Kahn Academy: Scientific Method (~12 mins) Crash Course (~ 11 mins)

Observational Methods Observational approaches: Data collection How do we observe the behaviors of interest? Naturalistic observation Participant observation Survey & interviews Archival data Systematic (contrived) observation Experiments Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist Observational Survey Case studies Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events Observational Methods

Observational Methods Archival data: Rather than making direct observations, researcher examines existing public or private records If the appropriate existing records can be found, no need for data collection Data set may be more extensive than what you could collect yourself However, you are limited to the data that exists, may be no way to collect follow-up data Data may be of observations that you cannot (ethically) collect or manipulate E.g., murder rates, who marries whom, etc. Word of caution: be aware of how and where the data were collected Observational Methods Using Archival Data (~48 mins)

Observational Methods Observational approaches: Data collection How do we observe the behaviors of interest? Naturalistic observation Participant observation Survey & interviews Archival data Systematic (contrived) observation Experiments Observation without manipulation Direct Observation Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist Observational Survey Case studies Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events Observational Methods

Observation without manipulation Advantages Complex patterns of behavior in particular settings Useful when little is known about the subject of study May learn about something that never would have thought of looking at experimentally Disadvantages Causality is a problem Threats to internal validity because of lack of control Every confound is a threat Lots of alternative explanations Directionality of the relationship isn’t known Sometimes the results are not reproducible Observational Methods

Observational Methods Observational approaches: Data collection How do we observe the behaviors of interest? Naturalistic observation Participant observation Survey & interviews Archival data Systematic (contrived/analog) observation Experiments Observation without manipulation Direct Observation Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist Observational Survey Case studies Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events Observational Methods

Observational Methods Systematic (Contrived Observation): The observer sets up the situation that is observed Observations of one or more specific variables made in a precisely defined setting Much less global than naturalistic observations Often takes less time However, since it isn’t a natural setting, the behavior may be changed Observational Methods

Conducting Research Observational approaches: Data collection How do we observe the behaviors of interest? Types of research designs What kinds of research questions are you investigating? E.g., Cause and effect? Descriptive? Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist Observational Survey Case studies Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events Conducting Research

Types of research designs Case studies Intensive study of a small set of individuals and their behaviors Correlational Looking for a co-occurrence relationship between two (or more) variables Experimental Investigating the cause-and-effect relationship between two (or more) variables through the manipulation of variables Quasi-experimental Experimental designs with one or more non-random variables Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist Observational Survey Case studies Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events Types of research designs

Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method. Typically: Descriptive (and non-experimental). Interesting (and often rare) case. Fits well with clinical work. Phineas Gage (Sci. Am. Show) Sept 13, 1848 Explosion propelled a railroad tamping rod through his brain Changed personality This view has some disadvantages There may be poor generalizability There are typically a number of possible confounds and alternative explanations Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method Get a very detailed description Fits well with clinical work Typically an interesting (and often rare) case The man who mistook his wife for a hat NA (fencing accident, amnesia) HM (surgery for epilepsy, amnesia) PZ (Korsakoff’s syndrome, amnesia, wrote autobiography a couple of years before the memory loss) Case Histories See: Oliver Sacks’ books for some other great examples interview

Correlational Methods Measure two (or more) variables for each individual and see if the variables co-occur (suggesting that they are related) Used for: Predictions Establishing Reliability and Validity Evaluating theories Limitation: Should not make casual claims X Y ? or or Correlational Methods

X Y Causal claims X Y X Y Z We’d like to say: To be able to do this: causes We’d like to say: To be able to do this: There must be co-variation between the two variables The causal variable must come first Directionality problem Happy people sleep well Or is it that sleeping well when you are happy? Need to eliminate plausible alternative explanations Third variable problem X Y or causes X Y Z Do Storks bring babies? Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings Causal claims Fun with correlations Spurious correlations Internet’s favorite phrase Why we keep saying it

Causal claims r = 0.63 Do Storks bring babies? Source: Kronmal (1993) Neyman (1952) reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings Birthrate: To adjust for population size both the number of storks and number of babies was divided by the number of women (per 10,000 women) to form the birth rate and stork rate. Causal claims

Theory 1: Storks deliver babies X Y causes Is killing storks and effective method of controlling birth rates? Causal claims

Theory 2: Underlying third variable causes X Y Z Causal claims

The experimental method Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments Must have a comparison At least two groups (often more) that get compared One groups serves as a control for the other group Variables Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated Allows for the testing of causal hypotheses Dependent variable - the variable that is measured Control variables - held constant for all participants in the experiment Experimental control will be discussed in more detail in a later lecture. It includes keeping the value of a variable constant for all conditions as well as allowing the variable to vary randomly (and hopefully equally across the experimental conditions) The experimental method Experiments in Psychology (~9 mins) Experimental Design (~ 3 mins) Experiment examples (~3 mins) Variables with Mythbusters (~7 mins)

The experimental method Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments Advantages Precise control possible Precise measurement possible Theory testing possible Can make causal claims Disadvantages Artificial situations may restrict generalization to “real world” Complex behaviors may be difficult to measure The ability to make causal claims comes from the use of control: Holding variables constant Selecting the levels of the independent variable Random assignment to conditions The experimental method

Reading and Writing with Style (APA) An APA research report What is it? How do you read it? How do you write it? The ultimate resource for APA style is the 6th edition APA Publication manual But also check out chpt 8 of your textbook and pgs 106-112 of your lab manual Many webpages too (http://apastyle.org/) Tips | common errors | videos Reading and Writing with Style (APA)

Reading and Writing with Style (APA) An APA research report What is it? How do you read it? How do you write it? A great book for Psychological writing University college writing help: http://www.ucollege.ilstu.edu/tutoring/writing/ Sternberg, R. J. (2003). The psychologist’s companion: A guide to scientific writing for students and researchers. Cambridge University Press, NY. Reading and Writing with Style (APA)

Misconceptions about Scientific writing Writing the paper is the routine part of the research process Forces you to commit to your evidence and conclusions Just the facts The facts are just part of the argument that the author is making What you say is all that is important, how you say it isn’t important Good writing leads to higher chance of accomplishing your goals Misconceptions about Scientific writing

Psychological writing tends to differ from other academic writings Not a creative writing exercise Presenting an argument based on data and logical reasoning Try to avoid using direct quotes, restate things in your own words. Avoid digression Footnotes are rare, they’re used to elaborate/clarify a point. Try to do so in the text. If long digressions, use the appendix Direct quotes are an easy cop out if you don’t understand something. Don’t cop out. Try to put it into your own words, it forces you to try harder to understand it Writing style

Reading a research article What are the goals of a research article? For the reader to: Know about the research Understand what was done Allow further testing & replication Be convinced by the research (hopefully) Standardization of research report format APA style Organization and content reflects the logical thinking in scientific investigation Standardization helps with clarity Read with a critical eye Write with clarity in mind Reading a research article

Psychological writing tends to differ from other academic writings Not a creative writing exercise Presenting an argument based on data and logical reasoning Try to avoid using direct quotes, restate things in your own words. Avoid digression Footnotes are rare, they’re used to elaborate/clarify a point. Try to do so in the text. If long digressions, use the appendix Direct quotes are an easy cop out if you don’t understand something. Don’t cop out. Try to put it into your own words, it forces you to try harder to understand it Writing style

Goals of a research article What are the goals of a research article? For the reader to: Know about the research Understand what was done Allow further testing & replication Be convinced by the research (hopefully) Standardization of research report format APA style Organization and content reflects the logical thinking in scientific investigation Standardization helps with clarity Read with a critical eye Write with clarity in mind Goals of a research article

Why a structured format? Our Major goal is Clarity - To ease communication of what was done Forces a minimal amount of information Provides a logical framework (for argument) Provides consistent format within a discipline People know what to expect Where to find the information in the article Allows readers to cross-reference your sources easily Why a structured format?

Communicate with clarity Major goal: Clarity

Communicate with clarity Major goal: Clarity

Major goal: Clarity Communicate with clarity Write for the reader Think about your audience, what do they already know, what don’t they know Avoid overstatements Be conservative in your claims Emphasize the positive Focus on how the data supports a theory not just on how it refutes another theory Major goal: Clarity

Major goal: Clarity Communicate with clarity Avoid Try to be concise Jargon when possible Slang and colloquialisms Sexist and biased language Try to be concise Don’t use a whole paragraph when two sentences will do Longer papers don’t mean better papers Eliminate unnecessary redundancy Use simple words (sentences) rather than complicated words (sentences) Major goal: Clarity

Major goal: Clarity Communicate with clarity Use concrete words and examples Check your work! Read it over, make sure that you say what you mean to say Use a consistent format (APA style) It helps your reader understand your arguments and the sources they’re built on. It also helps you keep track of your sources as you build arguments Major goal: Clarity

APA style: Parts of a research report Adolescent Depression 1 Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION Adolescent Depression and Attachment Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye Purdue University Abstract Adolescent Depression 2 We explored attachment in a family context by applying family systems principles to the investigation of multiple attachment relationships within families. This study focused on maternal adult attachment with respect to family of origin experiences. We examined associations between maternal adult attachment and three levels of family functioning including individual maternal depression symptoms, dyadic marital satisfaction and family unit functioning. We found that attachment security with respect to particular relationships was differentially associated with different levels of family functioning. Title Page Body References Authors Notes Footnotes Tables Figure Captions Figures Adolescent Depression 29 Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 185-202. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 86-93. APA style: Parts of a research report

The anatomy of a research article The basic parts of a research article: Title and authors - gives you a general idea of the topic and specifically who did it Abstract - short summary of the article The anatomy of a research article

Title Page Running head – will go on each page of published article, no more than 50 characters Running Head: ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION 1 Adolescent Depression and Attachment Ima G. Student and Soyam Eye Topnotch University Title should be maximally informative while short (10 to 12 words recommended) Order of Authorship sometimes carries meaning Affiliation – where the bulk of the research was done Published title pages will look a bit different, but you’ll find these pieces of information. Typically the body of the article will begin as well. Title Page

Abstract Abstract: Short summary of entire paper 150 to 250 words The problem/issue The method The results The major conclusions Recommendation: write this after you’ve finished the rest of the paper Good first contact, but remember that it is short on detail Shows up in PsycInfo Gets skimmed before reading the article Abstract

Hourglass shape Start broad Background Literature Review Body

Body Hourglass shape Narrow focus Statement of purpose Specific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level) Body

Hourglass shape Most focused - Methods - Results Body

Hourglass shape Broaden Discussion Conclusions Implications Body

Body Introduction - gives you the background that you need Issue and Background What is it? Why is it interesting/important? Literature Review What has been done? What theories are out there? Statement of purpose What are you going to do and why? Specific hypotheses (at least at conceptual level) What do you predict will happen in your research? Body

Body Introduction - gives you the background that you need Reading checklist 1) What is the author's goal? 2) What are the hypotheses? 3) If you had designed the study, how would YOU have done it? Writing checklist Be cohesive Be relevant (why are the reviewed studies relevant?) Work on the transitions (make the flow logical) Body

Body The basic parts of a research article : Method - tells the reader exactly what was done Enough detail that the reader could actually replicate the study. Subsections: Participants - who were the data collected from How many, where they were selected from, any special selection requirements, details about those who didn’t complete the experiment Apparatus/ Materials - what was used to conduct the study Design Suggested if you have a complex experimental design, often combined with Materials section Procedure What did each participant do? Other details, including the operational levels of your IV(s) and DV(s), counterbalancing, etc. Body

Body The basic parts of a research article : Method - tells the reader exactly what was done Reading checklist 1 a) Is your method better than theirs? b) Does the authors method actually test the hypotheses? c) What are the independent, dependent, and control variables? 2) Based on what the authors did, what results do YOU expect? Writing checklist Is it clear why the procedures were selected? Are any assumptions explicit and defended? Is the level of detail sufficient for replication? Body

Body Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here) Verbal statement of results Tables and figures These get referred to in the text, but actually get put into their own sections at the end of the manuscript Statistical Outcomes Means, standard deviations, t-tests, ANOVAs, correlations, etc. Body

Body Results (state the results but don’t interpret them here) Reading checklist 1) Did the author get unexpected results? 2 a) How does the author interpret the results? b) How would YOU interpret the results? c) What implications would YOU draw from these results? Writing checklist Is it clear how the hypotheses are tested by the analyses? Would a graph or table help clarify the results? What questions might the reader still have, and how could I answer them in this section? Body

Body Discussion (interpret the results) Relationship between purpose and results Theoretical (or methodological) contribution Implications Future directions (optional) Reading checklist 1 a) Does YOUR interpretation or the authors' interpretation best represent the data? b) Do you or the author draw the most sensible implications and conclusions? Writing checklist Have you stated your most convincing argument? Do the conclusions follow straightforwardly from the results? Body

The rest When something odd comes up, don’t guess. Look it up! References Author’s name Year Title of work Publication information Journal Issue Pages Adolescent Depression 29 References Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104. Beck, A. T. (1978). Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Benoit, D., Vidovic, D., & Roman, J. (1991, April). Transmission of attachment across three generations. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., & Barton, M. L. (1989). Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 185-202. Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K. (1989). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Association with insecure maternal attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 86-93. When something odd comes up, don’t guess. Look it up! The rest

Figures and tables These are used to supplement the text. To make a point clearer for the reader. Typically used for: The design Examples of stimuli Patterns of results Figures and tables

Checklist - things to watch for Clarity Acknowledge the work of others (avoid plagiarism) Active vs. passive voice Active: Summers and Jordan (2009) hypothesized that speakers use to much passive voice Passive: It was hypothesized by Summers and Jordan (2009) that speakers use to much passive voice Checklist - things to watch for

Checklist - things to watch for Avoid biased language APA guidelines: Accurate descriptions of individuals (e.g., Asian vs. Korean) Be sensitive to labels (e.g., “Oriental”) Appropriate use of headings Correct citing and references Good grammar APA style checklist Checklist - things to watch for