Chapter 9 Developmental Theories: Life Course and Latent Trait

Developmental Theories Seek to identify, describe, and understand the development factors the explain the onset and continuation of a criminal career Intertwining of personal factors, social factors, socialization factors, cognitive factors, and situational factors Two distinct groups: Life course theories Latent trait theories

The Life Course View The Glueck Research Popularized the research on the life cycle of delinquent careers “The deeper the roots of childhood maladjustment, the smaller the change of adult adjustment” Family relations are paramount in terms of quality of discipline and emotional ties with parents

The Life Course View The Glueck Research Children most likely to be delinquent: Low IQ’s A background of mental disease, and A powerful physique

The Life Course View Life Course Concepts Loeber & LeBlanc  Devoted time to the evolution of the criminal career Attention should be given to how a criminal career unfolds People may show a propensity of offend early in their lives

The Life Course View Problem Behavior Syndrome Criminal behavior is one of many antisocial behaviors that cluster together and typically involve family dysfunction, sexual and physical abuse, substance abuse, smoking, and precocious sexuality.

The Life Course View Two distinct viewpoints: Life course theories Criminality is viewed as a dynamic process Influenced by a multitude of: Individual characteristics Traits Social Experiences

The Life Course View Two distinct viewpoints: Life course theories Latent trait theories Human development is controlled by a “master trait” Master trait is present at birth or soon after

The Life Course View Some people are incapable of maturing in a reasonable and timely fashion because of family, environmental and personal problems The propensity to commit crime is neither stable nor constant Life course theories are multidimensional Suggesting criminality has multiple roots

Figure 9.1 Life Course and Latent Trait Theories The Life Course View Figure 9.1 Life Course and Latent Trait Theories

The Life Course View Disruption promotes criminality Disruptions in life’s major transitions Can be destructive Can promote criminality People influenced by different factors as they mature Negative life events can become cumulative

The Life Course View Changing Life Influences First  Adolescence  Family relations Adolescence  School and peer relations Adulthood  Vocational achievement Marital relations

The Life Course View Problem Behavior Syndrome All varieties of criminal behavior may be part of a generalized PBS Unemployment Educational underachievement School misconduct Residing in high crime and disorganized areas Exposure to racism and poverty Personal problems such as suicide attempts, sensation seeking, early parenthood, accident-proneness, medical problems, mental disease, anxiety, and eating disorders

The Life Course View Pathways to Crime Loeber and associates identified 3 distinct pathways to a criminal career Authority conflict: Begins at an early age with stubborn behavior Covert pathway: Begins with minor underhanded behavior and leads to property damage Overt pathway: Escalates into aggressive acts and then to violence

Figure 9.2 Loeber’s Pathways to Crime The Life Course View Figure 9.2 Loeber’s Pathways to Crime

The Life Course View Age of Onset/Continuity of Crime Life course theory suggests criminal careers are planted early in life May begin with truancy, cruelty to animals, lying, and theft Some offenders peak at an early age, whereas others persist into adulthood

The Life Course View Age of Onset/Continuity of Crime Continuity and desistance: Poor parental discipline and monitoring may be key to early criminality Rejection by peers and academic failure sustains antisocial behavior

The Life Course View Gender Similarities and Differences Like boys, early onset girls continue to experience difficulties such as Drug/alcohol use Poor school adjustment Mental health problems, and A variety of relationship dysfunctions

The Life Course View Gender Similarities and Differences Early onset path for males results in: Problems at work Substance abuse Early onset pathways for females are more likely to lead to: Depression A tendency to commit suicide

The Life Course View Adolescent Limiteds and Life Course Persisters Moffet  Most offenders are adolescent limited in that antisocial behavior peaks and then diminishes A small group of offenders are persisters Begin offending at an early age and continue into adulthood

The Life Course View Adolescent Limiteds and Life Course Persisters Early starters experience: Poor parenting Deviant behaviors Involvement with delinquent groups

The Life Course View Supporting Research Recent research supports Moffit’s views Early onset delinquents are influenced by individual traits  Low verbal ability Hyperactivity, and Negative personality traits Community-level factors such as poverty and instability seem to have little effect on their behavior

Theories of the Criminal Life Course The Social Development Model Integration of social control, social learning, and structural theories Weis, Catalano, Hawkins Community-level risk factors contribute to criminality Social control, disorganization, and opportunities Prosocial bonds may inhibit antisocial behaviors Attachment to conventional activities and beliefs SDM-based interventions can help reduce delinquency and drug abuse

Theories of the Criminal Life Course Sampson and Laub: Age-Graded Theory Sampson & Laub identified “turning points” (critical events) that may enable an offender to desist from crime Career and marriage are turning points Social Capital: Refers to positive relations with individuals and institutions, which support conventional behavior People who maintain a successful marriage and become parents are more likely to mature out of crime

Figure 9.3 Sampson and Laub’s Age-Graded Theory Theories of the Criminal Life Course Figure 9.3 Sampson and Laub’s Age-Graded Theory

Theories of the Criminal Life Course Testing Age-Graded Theory Indicators tend to support age-graded theory (i.e. employment) Research suggests the greater the social capital, the more likely one will be insulated from crime

Theories of the Criminal Life Course The Marriage Factor: People who marry and become parents are most likely mature out of crime Laub and Sampson are following up on the original research cohort of the Glueck’s Recent research  Piquero, MacDonald, and Parker Future research  Military, conforming to employment, etc.

Latent Trait View Assumes some people have a personal attribute that controls their propensity to commit crime The trait is either present at birth or established early in life Propensity and opportunity to commit crime fluctuate over time

Latent Trait View Crime and Human Nature Wilson & Herrnstein’s human nature theory  Genetics, intelligence, and body build contribute to criminality Biological and psychological traits influence crime choice and non-crime choices Their work suggests the existence of an elusive trait that predisposes people to commit crime

Latent Trait Theories General Theory of Crime (GTC) Gottfredson & Hirschi modified social control theory and integrated concepts of biosocial, psychological, routine activities, and rational choice theories GTC considers the offender and the criminal act as separate concepts People commit crime when it promises rewards and they are predisposed to commit crime

Latent Trait Theories General Theory of Crime (GTC) Tendencies to commit crime is contingent on a person’s level of self-control Root of poor self-control is traced to inadequate child-rearing practices Gottfredson and Hirschi maintain the GTC explains all varieties of criminal behavior Empirical evidence tends to support the GTC

Latent Trait Theories The Act and the Offender The criminal act and the criminal offender are separate concepts Criminal Acts: Illegal events that offenders engage in when seen as advantageous Criminal Offenders: People predisposed to commit crimes But not robots

Figure 9.4 Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime Latent Trait Theories Figure 9.4 Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime

Latent Trait Theories Impulsivity and Crime? Self-Control People with limited self-control: Impulsive Insensitive Physical rather than mental Risk-takers Shortsighted Nonverbal

Latent Trait Theories Self-Control and Crime All crime stems from a deficiency in self-control Differences in gender, race, and ecology  Can be explained by differences in self-control Explains all crimes

Latent Trait Theories Support for GTC Numerous studies U.S. and Abroad  Relationship between impulsiveness and self-control and crime

Latent Trait Theories Analyzing the General Theory of Crime Some critics charge GTC is: Tautological: Crime and impulsive behavior Different Classes of Criminals: Research indicates offenders occupy more than one class and more than one factor may contribute to their criminality Ecological/Individual Differences: Fails to address individual and ecological patterns in crime rates

Latent Trait Theories Analyzing the General Theory of Crime Some critics charge GTC is: Racial and Gender Differences: Little evidence that males are more impulsive than females and overlooks racism and poverty issues Moral Beliefs: GTC ignores the moral concept of right and wrong Peer Influence: Negative influences of peers increases the likelihood of criminality rather than reducing it

Latent Trait Theories Analyzing the General Theory of Crime Some critics charge GTC is: People Change: Propensity to commit crime does change and it is not static as suggested by GTC Modest Relationship: Self control is modestly related to antisocial behavior Cross Cultural Differences: GTC may be weak in cross-national studies

Latent Trait Theories Analyzing the General Theory of Crime Some critics charge GTC is: Misreads Human Nature: GTC assumes people are selfish, self-serving, and hedonistic Personality Disorder: GTC ignores personality disorders

Evaluating Developmental Theories Criminal Careers Must be understood as a passage along which people travel Factors affecting a criminal career may include  Structural factors Income and status Socialization factors Family and peer relations

Evaluating Developmental Theories Criminal Careers Factors affecting a criminal career may include  Pyschological factors Intelligence and personality Opportunity factors Free time, inadequate protection and a supply of easily stolen merchandise

Public Policy Implications of Developmental Theory Multi-systematic treatment efforts Programs targeting those at high risk to improve their developmental skills SMART (skills, mastery, and resistance training)