Lymphatic System

The exchange of substances between the blood and the interstitial fluid that bathes the cells takes place across the thin walls of the capillaries.

As blood proceeds along the capillary: Blood pressure drops The capillary becomes hypertonic compared to the surrounding tissue fluids The resulting osmotic gradient pulls water into the capillary by osmosis near the venule end.

About 85% of the fluid that leaves the blood at the arterial end of the capillary bed re-enters from the interstitial fluid at the venous end. The remaining 15% is eventually returned to the blood by the vessels of the lymphatic system.

Fluid enters this system by diffusing into tiny lymph capillaries intermingled among capillaries of the cardiovascular system. Once inside the lymphatic system, the fluid is called lymph, with a composition similar to the interstitial fluid. Eventually the lymphatic system drains into the circulatory system near the subclavian veins.

Lymph vessels, like veins, have valves that prevent the backflow of fluid toward the capillaries. Rhythmic contraction of the vessel walls help draw fluid into lymphatic capillaries. Also like veins, lymph vessels depend mainly on the movement of skeletal muscle to squeeze fluid toward the heart.

Along a lymph vessels are organs called lymph nodes. Inside a lymph node is a honeycomb of connective tissue with spaces filled with leukocytes (WBC) called lymphocytes and macrophages Lymphocytes and macrophages are specialized for attacking viruses and bacteria. When the body is fighting an infection, these cells multiply, and the lymph nodes become swollen.

In addition to defending against infection and maintaining the volume and protein concentration of the blood, the lymphatic system transports fats from the digestive tract to the circulatory system.

Blood

Figure 42.14 The composition of mammalian blood 90% 99% <1% <1%

Figure 42.14x Blood smear erythrocyte platelet leukocytes

Figure 42.15 Differentiation of blood cells Macrophages

Erythrocytes Biconcave in shape due to absence of nucleus Absence of nucleus  lifespan of 120 days Dead erythrocytes recycled by spleen and liver into bilirubin  bile

Erythrocytes Hemoglobin is the protein attached to the erythrocyte Hemoglobin has 4 polypeptide chains (quaternary structure) Each polypeptide chain has a heme (iron) group that binds O2 Therefore one erythrocyte carries 8 oxygen atoms

Regulation of Erythrocytes 4) + High blood O2 5) - erythropoietin 3) + erythrocytes 1) + Low blood O2 2) + erythropoietin

Blood Clotting Platelets initiate clotting at site of tear in blood vessel wall Fibrin is produced to seal any leaks in the blood clot Platelets + Fibrin + Pus = Scab

Figure 42.16x Blood clot

Mechanism of Blood Clotting