William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 8th Edition Chapter 3 Top Level View of Computer Function and Interconnection

Program Concept Hardwired systems are inflexible General purpose hardware can do different tasks, given correct control signals Instead of re-wiring, supply a new set of control signals

What is a program? A sequence of steps For each step, an arithmetic or logical operation is done For each operation, a different set of control signals is needed

Function of Control Unit For each operation a unique code is provided e.g. ADD, MOVE A hardware segment accepts the code and issues the control signals We have a computer!

Data and instructions need to get into the system and results out Components The Control Unit and the Arithmetic and Logic Unit constitute the Central Processing Unit Data and instructions need to get into the system and results out Input/output Temporary storage of code and results is needed Main memory

Von Neumann Architecture • Data and instructions are stored in a single read–write memory. • The contents of this memory are addressable by location, without regard to the type of data contained there. • Execution occurs in a sequential fashion (unless explicitly modified) from one instruction to the next. • A particular set of hardware will perform various functions on data depending on control signals applied to the hardware.

Von Neumann Architecture How shall control signals be supplied? The answer is simple but subtle (not easily grasped). The entire program is actually a sequence of steps. At each step, some arithmetic or logical operation is performed on some data. Programming is now much easier. Instead of rewiring the hardware for each new program, all we need to do is provide a new sequence of codes.

Von Neumann Architecture Each code is, in effect, an instruction, and part of the hardware interprets each instruction and generates control signals. To distinguish this new method of programming, a sequence of codes or instructions is called software. Figure 3.1b indicates two major components of the system: an instruction interpreter and a module of general-purpose arithmetic and logic functions. These two constitute the CPU.

Programming concept

I/O Components Data and instructions must be put into the system. For this we need some sort of input module. This module contains basic components for accepting data and instructions in some form and converting them into an internal form of signals usable by the system. A means of reporting results is needed, and this is in the form of an output module. Taken together, these are referred to as I/O components.

Main Memory (Temporary Storage) An input device will bring instructions and data in sequentially. But a program is not invariably executed sequentially; it may jump around (e.g., the IAS jump instruction). Similarly, operations on data may require access to more than just one element at a time in a predetermined sequence. Thus, there must be a place to store temporarily both instructions and data. That module is called memory, or main memory, to distinguish it from external storage or peripheral devices. Von Neumann pointed out that the same memory could be used to store both instructions and data.

MAR and MBR (CPU Data Exchange) The CPU exchanges data with memory. For this purpose, it typically makes use of two internal (to the CPU) registers: a memory address register (MAR), which specifies the address in memory for the next read or write and a memory buffer register (MBR), which contains the data to be written into memory or receives the data read from memory.

I/O Address and Buffer Registers Similarly, an I/O address register (I/O AR) specifies a particular I/O device. An I/O buffer (I/O BR) register is used for the exchange of data between an I/O module and the CPU.

Memory Locations and I/O A memory module consists of a set of locations, defined by sequentially numbered addresses. Each location contains a binary number that can be interpreted as either an instruction or data. An I/O module transfers data from external devices to CPU and memory, and vice versa. It contains internal buffers for temporarily holding these data until they can be sent on.

Computer Components: Top Level View

Computer Function The basic function performed by a computer is execution of a program, which consists of a set of instructions stored in memory. The processor does the actual work by executing instructions specified in the program. In its simplest form, instruction processing consists of two steps: The processor reads (fetches) instructions from memory one at a time and executes each instruction.

Program Execution Program execution consists of repeating the process of instruction fetch and instruction execution. The instruction execution may involve several operations and depends on the nature of the instruction. The processing required for a single instruction is called an instruction cycle. The instruction cycle involves two steps which are referred to as the fetch cycle and the execute cycle.

Program Execution Stop Program execution halts only if the machine is turned off, some sort of unrecoverable error occurs, or a program instruction that halts the computer is encountered.

Instruction Cycle: Fetch and Execute Two steps: Fetch Execute

Program Counter (PC) At the beginning of each instruction cycle, the processor fetches an instruction from memory. In a typical processor, a register called the program counter (PC) holds the address of the instruction to be fetched next. Unless told otherwise, the processor always increments the PC after each instruction fetch so that it will fetch the next instruction in sequence (i.e., the instruction located at the next higher memory address).

CPU Registers MAR (Memory Address Register) MBR (Memory Buffer Register) PC (Program Counter) IR (Instruction Register) AC (Accumulator-Temporary Register) I/O AR (Input-Output Address Register) I/O BR (Input-Output Buffer Register)

Program Counter (PC) holds address of next instruction to fetch Fetch Cycle Program Counter (PC) holds address of next instruction to fetch Processor fetches instruction from memory location pointed to by PC Increment PC Unless told otherwise Instruction loaded into Instruction Register (IR) Processor interprets instruction and performs required actions

Execute Cycle Processor-memory Processor I/O Data processing Control data transfer between CPU and main memory Processor I/O Data transfer between CPU and I/O module Data processing Some arithmetic or logical operation on data Control Alteration of sequence of operations e.g. jump Combination of above

Example of Program Execution

Example of Program Execution A 1. The PC contains 300, the address of the first instruction. This instruction (the value 1940 in hexadecimal) is loaded into the instruction register IR. Then the PC is incremented. Note that this process involves the use of a memory address register (MAR) and a memory buffer register (MBR). For simplicity, these intermediate registers are ignored. 2. The first 4 bits (first hexadecimal digit) in the IR indicate that the AC is to be loaded. The remaining 12 bits (three hexadecimal digits) specify the address (940) from which data are to be loaded.

Example of Program Execution B 3. The next instruction (5941) is fetched from location 301, and the PC is incremented. 4. The old contents of the AC and the contents of location 941 are added, and the result is stored in the AC. 5. The next instruction (2941) is fetched from location 302, and the PC is incremented. 6. The contents of the AC are stored in location 941.

Opcode and Address code  

Instruction format (in Hexadecimals) The hexadecimal notations used in the previous example help the designer to recognize opcodes and address codes. The computer only uses binary digits.

Instruction Cycle State Diagram

Steps of the Instruction Cycle Instruction fetch (if): Read instruction from its memory location into the processor. Instruction operation decoding (iod): Analyze instruction to determine type of operation to be performed and operand(s) to be used. Operand address calculation (oac): If the operation involves reference to an operand in memory or available via I/O, then determine the address of the operand. Operand fetch (of): Fetch the operand from memory or read it in from I/O. Data operation (do): Perform the operation indicated in the instruction. Operand store (os): Write the result into memory or out to I/O.

Interrupts Mechanism by which other modules (e.g. I/O) may interrupt normal sequence of processing Program e.g. overflow, division by zero Timer Generated by internal processor timer Used in pre-emptive multi-tasking I/O from I/O controller Hardware failure e.g. memory parity error

Program Flow Control

Added to instruction cycle Processor checks for interrupt Interrupt Cycle Added to instruction cycle Processor checks for interrupt Indicated by an interrupt signal If no interrupt, fetch next instruction If interrupt pending: Suspend execution of current program Save context Set PC to start address of interrupt handler routine Process interrupt Restore context and continue interrupted program

Transfer of Control via Interrupts

Instruction Cycle with Interrupts

Program Timing Short I/O Wait

Program Timing Long I/O Wait

Instruction Cycle (with Interrupts) - State Diagram

Multiple Interrupts Disable interrupts Define priorities Processor will ignore further interrupts whilst processing one interrupt Interrupts remain pending and are checked after first interrupt has been processed Interrupts handled in sequence as they occur Define priorities Low priority interrupts can be interrupted by higher priority interrupts When higher priority interrupt has been processed, processor returns to previous interrupt

Multiple Interrupts - Sequential

Multiple Interrupts – Nested

Time Sequence of Multiple Interrupts

All the units must be connected Connecting All the units must be connected Different type of connection for different type of unit Memory Input/Output CPU

Computer Modules

Receives and sends data Receives addresses (of locations) Memory Connection Receives and sends data Receives addresses (of locations) Receives control signals Read Write Timing

Input/Output Connection(1) Similar to memory from computer’s viewpoint Output Receive data from computer Send data to peripheral Input Receive data from peripheral Send data to computer

Input/Output Connection(2) Receive control signals from computer Send control signals to peripherals e.g. spin disk Receive addresses from computer e.g. port number to identify peripheral Send interrupt signals (control)

CPU Connection Reads instruction and data Writes out data (after processing) Sends control signals to other units Receives (& acts on) interrupts

Buses There are a number of possible interconnection systems Single and multiple BUS structures are most common e.g. Control/Address/Data bus (PC) e.g. Unibus (DEC-PDP)

A communication pathway connecting two or more devices What is a Bus? A communication pathway connecting two or more devices Usually broadcast Often grouped A number of channels in one bus e.g. 32 bit data bus is 32 separate single bit channels Power lines may not be shown

Width is a key determinant of performance Data Bus Carries data Remember that there is no difference between “data” and “instruction” at this level Width is a key determinant of performance 8, 16, 32, 64 bit

Identify the source or destination of data Address bus Identify the source or destination of data e.g. CPU needs to read an instruction (data) from a given location in memory Bus width determines maximum memory capacity of system e.g. 8080 has 16 bit address bus giving 64k address space

Control and timing information Control Bus Control and timing information Memory read/write signal Interrupt request Clock signals

Bus Interconnection Scheme

Big and Yellow? What do buses look like? Parallel lines on circuit boards Ribbon cables Strip connectors on mother boards e.g. PCI Sets of wires

Physical Realization of Bus Architecture

Lots of devices on one bus leads to: Single Bus Problems Lots of devices on one bus leads to: Propagation delays Long data paths mean that co-ordination of bus use can adversely affect performance If aggregate data transfer approaches bus capacity Most systems use multiple buses to overcome these problems

Traditional (ISA) (with cache)

High Performance Bus

Bus Types Dedicated Multiplexed Separate data & address lines Shared lines Address valid or data valid control line Advantage - fewer lines Disadvantages More complex control Ultimate performance

Bus Arbitration More than one module controlling the bus e.g. CPU and DMA controller Only one module may control bus at one time Arbitration may be centralised or distributed

Centralised or Distributed Arbitration Single hardware device controlling bus access Bus Controller Arbiter May be part of CPU or separate Distributed Each module may claim the bus Control logic on all modules

Co-ordination of events on bus Synchronous Timing Co-ordination of events on bus Synchronous Events determined by clock signals Control Bus includes clock line A single 1-0 is a bus cycle All devices can read clock line Usually sync on leading edge Usually a single cycle for an event

Synchronous Timing Diagram

Asynchronous Timing – Read Diagram

Asynchronous Timing – Write Diagram

PCI Bus Peripheral Component Interconnection Intel released to public domain 32 or 64 bit 50 lines

PCI Bus Lines (required) Systems lines Including clock and reset Address & Data 32 time mux lines for address/data Interrupt & validate lines Interface Control Arbitration Not shared Direct connection to PCI bus arbiter Error lines

PCI Bus Lines (Optional) Interrupt lines Not shared Cache support 64-bit Bus Extension Additional 32 lines Time multiplexed 2 lines to enable devices to agree to use 64-bit transfer JTAG/Boundary Scan For testing procedures

Transaction between initiator (master) and target Master claims bus PCI Commands Transaction between initiator (master) and target Master claims bus Determine type of transaction e.g. I/O read/write Address phase One or more data phases

PCI Read Timing Diagram

PCI Bus Arbiter

PCI Bus Arbitration

Foreground Reading Stallings, chapter 3 (all of it) www.pcguide.com/ref/mbsys/buses/ In fact, read the whole site! www.pcguide.com/