Behavioral Adaptations to the Environment Chapter 35 Behavioral Adaptations to the Environment

Leaping Herds of Herbivores Leaping Herds of Herbivores Impalas of the African savanna Are very successful as a population, despite heavy pressure from predators

Impalas exhibit protective behaviors such as grouping To protect from the numerous carnivores

THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 35.1 Behavioral ecologists ask both proximate and ultimate questions Behavior Is everything an animal does and how it does it Figure 35.1

Behavioral ecology Studies behavior in an evolutionary context Behavioral ecologists Consider proximate questions, which focus on the immediate causes of behavior Consider ultimate questions, which focus on the evolutionary causes of behavior

Natural selection Preserves behaviors that enhance fitness

35.2 Early behaviorists used experiments to study fixed action patterns Lorenz and Tinbergen were the first to demonstrate the importance of innate behavior Which is performed the same way by all members of a species

Fixed action patterns (FAPs) Fixed action patterns (FAPs) Are innate behaviors that exhibit unchangeable sequences Ensure that activities essential to survival are performed correctly without practice Figure 35.2

Sign stimuli Are simple cues that trigger fixed action patterns

35.3 Behavior is the result of both genes and environmental factors 35.3 Behavior is the result of both genes and environmental factors Certain behaviors in prairie voles Are under relatively strong genetic control Figure 35.3A

Studies have shown differences in oxytocin (a hormone) receptors Studies have shown differences in oxytocin (a hormone) receptors In the brains of female monogamous prairie voles and promiscuous montane voles Figure 35.3B

LEARNING 35.4 Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving Learning Is a change in behavior resulting from experience Table 35.4

Habituation Is learning to ignore a repeated, unimportant stimulus

35.5 Imprinting is learning that involves innate behavior and experience Imprinting Is irreversible learning limited to a sensitive period Figure 35.5A

Imprinting plays a role in song development For many kinds of birds Imprinting plays a role in song development Figure 35.5B

CONNECTION 35.6 Imprinting poses problems and opportunities for conservation programs Captive breeding programs for endangered species Must provide proper imprinting models Figure 35.6

35.7 Animal movement may be a simple response to stimuli or involve spatial learning A kinesis Is a random movement in response to a stimulus

A taxis Is a more or less automatic movement directed toward or away from a stimulus Direction of river current Figure 35.7A

Involves using landmarks to move through the environment Spatial learning Involves using landmarks to move through the environment Is more complex than kineses or taxes 1 2 3 Nest No nest Figure 35.7B

35.8 Movements of animals may depend on internal maps 35.8 Movements of animals may depend on internal maps Cognitive maps Are internal representations of spatial relationships of objects in the surroundings

Migratory animals may move between areas Migratory animals may move between areas Using the sun, stars, landmarks, or other cues Paper Ink pad Funnel- shaped cage Figure 35.8

35.9 Animals may learn to associate a stimulus or behavior with a response In associative learning An animal learns that a particular stimulus or a particular response is linked to a reward or punishment

In trial-and-error learning In trial-and-error learning An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect Figure 35.9

35.10 Social learning involves observation and imitation of others 35.10 Social learning involves observation and imitation of others Social learning involves changes in behavior That result from the observation and imitation of others Figure 35.10

35.11 Problem-solving behavior relies on cognition 35.11 Problem-solving behavior relies on cognition Cognition is the ability of an animal’s nervous system To perceive, store, process, and use information

Some animals exhibit problem-solving behavior Some animals exhibit problem-solving behavior Which involves complex cognitive processes Figure 35.11A, B

FORAGING AND MATING BEHAVIORS 35.12 Behavioral ecologists use cost-benefit analysis in studying foraging Foraging includes Identifying, obtaining, and eating food

Some animals are generalists Some animals are generalists Eating just about anything that is readily available Figure 35.12A

Other animals are specialists Eating only specific available foods Other animals are specialists Eating only specific available foods Figure 35.12B

Optimal foraging theory predicts that an animal’s feeding behavior Optimal foraging theory predicts that an animal’s feeding behavior Will maximize energy gain and minimize energy expenditure and risk Figure 35.12C

35.13 Mating behaviors enhance reproductive success 35.13 Mating behaviors enhance reproductive success Mating systems may be Promiscuous, monogamous, or polygamous

The needs of offspring and certainty of paternity The needs of offspring and certainty of paternity Help explain differences in mating systems and parental care by males Figure 35.13

35.14 Mating behavior often involves elaborate courtship rituals 35.14 Mating behavior often involves elaborate courtship rituals Courtship rituals Advertise the species, sex, and physical condition of males 1 2 3 4 Figure 35.14A

In some species, courtship is a group activity In some species, courtship is a group activity In which members of one or both sexes choose mates from a group of candidates Figure 35.14B

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY 35.15 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context Sociobiology studies social behavior The interactions of two or more animals, in an evolutionary sense

35.16 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources 35.16 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources Animals exhibiting this behavior Mark and defend their territories Figure 35.16A, B

35.17 Rituals involving agonistic behavior often resolve confrontations between competitors Agonistic behavior, including threat, rituals, and sometimes combat Settles disputes over resources Figure 35.17

35.18 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior 35.18 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior Dominance hierarchies Partition resources among members of a social group Figure 35.18

TALKING ABOUT SCIENCE 35.19 Behavioral biologist Jane Goodall discusses dominance hierarchies and reconciliation behavior in chimpanzees Figure 35.19A

Exhibit dominance hierarchies and reconciliation behavior Chimpanzees Exhibit dominance hierarchies and reconciliation behavior Figure 35.19B

35.20 Social behavior requires communication between animals 35.20 Social behavior requires communication between animals Signaling in the form of sounds, scents, displays, or touches Provides communication needed for social behavior Figure 35.20A, B

35.21 Altruistic acts can often be explained by the concept of inclusive fitness Altruism is defined as behavior that reduces an individual’s fitness While increasing the fitness of others in the population Figure 35.21A

An animal can propagate its own genes by helping relatives reproduce Altruism can usually be explained by inclusive fitness and kin selection An animal can propagate its own genes by helping relatives reproduce Figure 35.21B

In reciprocal altruism Individuals do favors that may later be repaid

35.22 Both genes and culture contribute to human social behavior CONNECTION 35.22 Both genes and culture contribute to human social behavior Human behavior Has a genetic basis but is quite variable Is strongly influenced by learning and culture

Research has suggested that human partners with similar interests Research has suggested that human partners with similar interests Are more likely to have long, stable relationships Figure 35.22

TALKING ABOUT SCIENCE 35.23 Edward O. Wilson promoted the field of sociobiology and is a leading conservation activist According to sociobiologist Edward O. Wilson Natural selection underlies many human behaviors, including behaviors that have led to our current biodiversity crisis Figure 35.23