Presidential and Parliamentary Systems Presidents may be outsiders; prime ministers are always insiders, chosen by the members of the majority party in parliament Presidents have no guaranteed majority in the legislature; prime ministers always have a majority Divided government: one party controls the White House and another controls one or both houses of Congress Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Electoral College Almost all states use a winner-take-all system If no candidate won a majority, the House would decide the election The Electoral College ultimately worked differently than expected, because the Founders did not anticipate the role of political parties Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Powers of the President Potential for power found in ambiguous clauses of the Constitution—e.g., power as commander in chief, duty to “take care that laws be faithfully executed” (executive power) Greatest source of power lies in politics and public opinion Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Power to Persuade Presidents try to transform popularity into congressional support for their programs Presidential coattails have had a declining effect for years Popularity is affected by factors beyond anyone’s control – consider Bush’s approval ratings following the September 11th attacks Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 14.2: Presidential Popularity You may have to break this into 2 slides. Thomas E.Cronin, The State of the Presidency (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975), 110-111. Copyright © 1975 by Little, Brown and Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission. Updated with Gallup poll data, 1976-2004. Reprinted by permission of the Gallup Poll News Service. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 14.2: Presidential Popularity You may have to break this into 2 slides. Thomas E.Cronin, The State of the Presidency (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975), 110-111. Copyright © 1975 by Little, Brown and Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission. Updated with Gallup poll data, 1976-2004. Reprinted by permission of the Gallup Poll News Service. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 14.3: Presidential Victories on Votes in Congress, 1953-2002 Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

White House Office Staff, Cabinet, and E.O.P. Rule of propinquity: power is wielded by people who are in the room when a decision is made Pyramid structure: most assistants report through hierarchy to chief of staff, who then reports to president Eisenhower, Nixon, Reagan, Bush, Clinton (late in his administration) Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

White House Office Circular structure: cabinet secretaries and assistants report directly to the president Carter (till the end of his administration) Ad hoc structure: task forces, committees, and informal groups deal directly with president Clinton (early in his administration) Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 14.1: Growth of the White House Staff, 1945-2002 Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, 2003-2004 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2003), 254-255. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Cabinet Not explicitly mentioned in Constitution Presidents have many more appointments to make than do prime ministers, due to competition created by the separation of power Presidential control over departments remains uncertain—secretaries become advocates for their departments The loyalties of cabinet members are often divided between loyalty to the President and loyalty to their own executive departments Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Presidents traditionally have difficulties controlling Cabinet agencies Agencies often have political support from interest groups. Agency staff often has information and technical expertise that the President and presidential advisers lack. Civil servants who remain in their jobs through changes of administration develop loyalties to their agencies. Congress is a competitor for influence over the bureaucracy. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Office of Management and Budget The OMB responsible for the preparation of executive spending proposals submitted to Congress Part of the E.O.P Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Independent Regulatory Commissions Created Primarily for regulating certain industries in order to protect the public interest Environment, Traffic, Mass Media, Elections, etc Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Table 14.1: The Cabinet Departments Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Presidential Character Kennedy: bold, articulate, amusing leader; improviser who bypassed traditional lines of authority Nixon: expertise in foreign policy; disliked personal confrontation; tried to centralize power in the White House Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Presidential Character Reagan: set policy priorities and then gave staff wide latitude; leader of public opinion Clinton: good communicator; pursued liberal/centrist policies George W. Bush: tightly run White House; agenda became dominated by foreign affairs following the September 11th attacks Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Veto Power Veto message sent within ten days of the bill’s passage Pocket veto (only before Congress adjourns at the end of its second session) Congress rarely overrides vetoes (2/3 vote of each house; only 4% of 2,500 vetoes) President does not hold line-item veto power Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The President’s Program Resources in developing a program include interest groups, aides and campaign advisers, federal departments and agencies, and various specialists Constraints include public and congressional reactions, limited time and attention, and unexpected crises Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Presidential Transition Only 15 of forty-three presidents have served two full terms Eight vice presidents have taken office upon the president’s death Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Vice President Only five vice presidents have won the presidency in an election without having first entered the office as a result of their president’s death The vice president presides over Senate and votes in case of tie Succession of the Presidency Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The 25th Amendment (1967) Allows vice president to serve as acting president if president is disabled Illness is decided by president, by vice president and cabinet, or by two-thirds vote of Congress The new vice president must be confirmed by a majority vote of both houses Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Impeachment Indictment by the House, conviction by the Senate Presidential examples: Andrew Johnson, Richard Nixon (pre-empted by resignation), Bill Clinton Neither Johnson nor Clinton was convicted by the Senate Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Constraints on the President Both the president and the Congress are more constrained today due to: Complexity of issues Scrutiny of the media Greater number and power of interest groups Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.